Water Pollution
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Publication Cancer and non-cancer health risks from carcinogenic heavy metal exposures in underground water from Kilimambogo, Kenya(Elsevier, 2020-03) Nyambura, Catherine; Hashim, Nadir Omar; Chege, Margaret Wairimu; Tokonami, Shinji; Omonya, Felix WanjalaWater is very crucial for man, animals and plants because of its health implications in case it is polluted. Water has many uses like drinking for man and animals, domestic use and for agricultural use. The concentration levels of Cd, Ni and Pb in borehole water of Kilimambogo region were measured using the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). pH was measured on site using a digital pH standard meter. The use of fertilizers and chemicals from the neighboring small scale farms and the large pineapple farms could easily contaminate the water table. The mean heavy metal concentration for Cd, Ni and Pb were found to be 6.4, 6.9 and 42.0 ppm respectively. The mean hazard quotients (HQ) were 26.2, 1.4 and 57.0.for adults and 12.9, 0.69 and 27.9 for children for the corresponding elements. The mean carcinogenic risks for Cd, Ni and Pb were 4.9 × 10−2, 1.2 × 10−2 and 7.3 × 10−3 for adults and 1.1 × 10−2, 2.8 × 10−2 and 1.6 × 10−3 for children respectively. The mean metal pollution index (MPI) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) were 10 and 934, higher than the set critical threshold value of 100. Therefore, the borehole sources are enriched with heavy metals and should be periodically monitored.Publication Cancer and Non-Cancer Health Risks from Carcinogenic Heavy Metal Exposures in Underground Water from Kilimambogo, Kenya(Elsevier, 2020-4) Nyambura, Catherine; Hashim, Nadir Omar; Chege, Margaret Wairimu; Tokonami, Shinji; Omonya, Felix WanjalaWater is very crucial for man, animals and plants because of its health implications in case it is polluted. Water has many uses like drinking for man and animals, domestic use and for agricultural use. The concentration levels of Cd, Ni and Pb in borehole water of Kilimambogo region were measured using the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). pH was measured on site using a digital pH standard meter. The use of fertilizers and chemicals from the neighboring small scale farms and the large pineapple farms could easily contaminate the water table. The mean heavy metal concentration for Cd, Ni and Pb were found to be 6.4, 6.9 and 42.0 ppm respectively. The mean hazard quotients (HQ) were 26.2, 1.4 and 57.0.for adults and 12.9, 0.69 and 27.9 for children for the corresponding elements. The mean carcinogenic risks for Cd, Ni and Pb were 4.9 × 10−2, 1.2 × 10−2 and 7.3 × 10−3 for adults and 1.1 × 10−2, 2.8 × 10−2 and 1.6 × 10−3 for children respectively. The mean metal pollution index (MPI) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) were 10 and 934, higher than the set critical threshold value of 100. Therefore, the borehole sources are enriched with heavy metals and should be periodically monitored.Publication Cancer and Non-Cancer Health Risks from Carcinogenic Heavy Metal Exposures in Underground Water from Kilimambogo, Kenya(Elsevier, 2020) Nyambura, Catherine; Hashim, Nadir Omar; Chege, Margaret Wairimu; Tokonami, Shinji; Omonya, Felix WanjalaWater is very crucial for man, animals and plants because of its health implications in case it is polluted. Water has many uses like drinking for man and animals, domestic use and for agricultural use. The concentration levels of Cd, Ni and Pb in borehole water of Kilimambogo region were measured using the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). pH was measured on site using a digital pH standard meter. The use of fertilizers and chemicals from the neighboring small scale farms and the large pineapple farms could easily contaminate the water table. The mean heavy metal concentration for Cd, Ni and Pb were found to be 6.4, 6.9 and 42.0 ppm respectively. The mean hazard quotients (HQ) were 26.2, 1.4 and 57.0.for adults and 12.9, 0.69 and 27.9 for children for the corresponding elements. The mean carcinogenic risks for Cd, Ni and Pb were 4.9 × 10−2, 1.2 × 10−2 and 7.3 × 10−3 for adults and 1.1 × 10−2, 2.8 × 10−2 and 1.6 × 10−3 for children respectively. The mean metal pollution index (MPI) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) were 10 and 934, higher than the set critical threshold value of 100. Therefore, the borehole sources are enriched with heavy metals and should be periodically monitored.Publication Cancer and Non-Cancer Health Risks from Carcinogenic Heavy Metal Exposures in Underground Water from Kilimambogo, Kenya(2020) Nyambura, Catherine; Hashim, Nadir Omar; Chege, Margaret Wairimu; Tokonami, Shinji; Omonya, Felix WanjalaWater is very crucial for man, animals and plants because of its health implications in case it is polluted. Water has many uses like drinking for man and animals, domestic use and for agricultural use. The concentration levels of Cd, Ni and Pb in borehole water of Kilimambogo region were measured using the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). pH was measured on site using a digital pH standard meter. The use of fertilizers and chemicals from the neighboring small scale farms and the large pineapple farms could easily contaminate the water table. The mean heavy metal concentration for Cd, Ni and Pb were found to be 6.4, 6.9 and 42.0 ppm respectively. The mean hazard quotients (HQ) were 26.2, 1.4 and 57.0.for adults and 12.9, 0.69 and 27.9 for children for the corresponding elements. The mean carcinogenic risks for Cd, Ni and Pb were 4.9 × 10−2, 1.2 × 10−2 and 7.3 × 10−3 for adults and 1.1 × 10−2, 2.8 × 10−2 and 1.6 × 10−3 for children respectively. The mean metal pollution index (MPI) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) were 10 and 934, higher than the set critical threshold value of 100. Therefore, the borehole sources are enriched with heavy metals and should be periodically monitored.Publication Determination of Fecal Contamination Status of Shallow Wells in Dede Division, Migori County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2018-11) Odiwuor, Oluoch EvanceA shallow well is a hole dug, bored or drilled less than 50M deep to extract water. Contamination of shallow wells with fecal matter presents a grave public health threat in developing countries, such as Kenya, where large numbers of households lack access to clean and safe water supplies and rely on untreated surface water sources or shallow unprotected groundwater for domestic utilization. A report by WHO shows that 1 billion people practice open defecation with nine out of ten of them in rural areas and it is estimated that 1.8 billion people use a source of drinking water that is fecally contaminated. In Kenya unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene are the 2nd leading risk factors causing morbidity and mortality at the national and county levels respectively. In Dede Division, 65.5% of households depend on shallow wells for domestic needs and there are rising trends of confirmed cases of fecal-related diseases. The study sought to assess human and technical determinants of fecal contamination status of shallow wells in Dede Division. A cross-sectional study of households using the wells was conducted. Fisher’s formula was then used to calculate the sample size of the heads of households. Since the approximated number of households using shallow wells was <10,000 (4008), the two stages of the formula were adopted, giving a sample size of 386 heads of households. Out of the 180 shallow wells, 54 (30% of 180) were proportionately sampled and grab sampling technique adopted while sampling water from each of the sampled shallow wells. Basic physical parameters like temperature, turbidity and pH were analysed by a portable turbidity meter and pH meter while H2S rapid field test was employed for total corliforms analysis of grab samples in the field. Fecal contamination status of each well was determined by Membrane Filter Technique in kisumu government labaratory. Chi-square test was used to measure associations between variables while Multi-variate logistic regression analysis applied to test the hypotheses. The study reported significant relationship between level of knowledge of respondents on a well being too close to a latrine as a potential route (risk factor), a well located downhill a latrine, an open/uncovered well, surface run-offs into wells, dropping objects in shallow wells, using a dirty drawer, people/animals dropping in wells, doing laundry next to a well, and human/animal feces dropping in the well as potential routes of fecal contamination. It further revealed significant associations between several technical determinants and fecal contamination status of shallow wells e.g distance (M) from a latrine to a well, with majority of wells within safe distances of contamination (>10M) but still tested positive for fecal corliforms, distance (M) from the nearest cattle pen if any with a significant majority of shallow wells testing positive for fecal corliforms, damage or lack of concrete plinth, breaks/cracks on the parapet walls, breaks/cracks in the cover/top slab, breaks in the drainage channels, shallow well covered while not in use and shallow well fenced out respectively. Majority of shallow wells (69%) tested positive for E. Coli, a strong indicator for presence of fecal matter in water, with only 31% testing negative. Common human and technical determinants (risk factors) by and large are functions of fecal contamination status of shallow wells in Dede Division. Efficient protection of shallow wells is a critical pointer to their ground water quality. Households in Dede Division should ensure adequate treatment of shallow wells for fecal contamination before utilization of water from these sources. This can be both at source or household level. They should be sensitized by the relevant authorities on common routes of fecal contamination of shallow well water and safe hygiene and sanitation practices around shallow wells to prevent fecal contamination of the wells. Households using shallow wells in Dede Division should ensure proper sighting and location of latrines in relation to shallow wells to avoid fecal contamination of the wells through leaching. The pit latrines should be sighted down hill the shallow wells and located atleast 10 meters apart.Publication Effects of Oil Exploration on Surface Water Quality – A Review(IWA, 2016-02-14) Luswetia, Elizabeth; Kandab, Edwin Kimutai; Obandoa, Joy; Makokhaa, MaryThe oil industry is a source of revenue and foreign exchange for an economy. Nevertheless, oil exploration is an inherent risk tothe environment due to the pollution of water resources, especially surface water resources. The main waste is producedwater, which is increasing around the world. As a consequence, water pollution resulting from normal oil drilling, refining, distribution, and accidents is the principal concern of oil exploration in the environment. Oil pollution is associated with ecologicalcontaminants such as heavy metals and organic compounds which are the primary contaminant of surface water resources.Often this results in toxicity accretion in the food chain, and their non-biodegradable nature is of great concern to bothhuman and aquatic life. Therefore, this review evaluates existing knowledge on the effect of oil exploration on surface waterquality, hydraulic fracturing technique/chemicals, and composition of produced water. This review also recommends furtherresearch on the physicochemical characteristics, analysis of heavy metals in water/sediments, and characterization ofhydro-chemical facies of surface water resources around oil exploration sites to enable effective policy development.Publication Impact of Ph on Cr (VI) Ions Remediation from Contaminated Water Using Endod Saponin-Chitosan-Zeolite-Metal Oxide Nanocomposite(IJPSAT, 2020-09-02) Anyango, Beatrice Achieng; Nawiri, Pauline; Nyambaka, Hudson; Andala, DicksonContamination of water bodies by heavy metals due to discharge of metal containing effluents into the water bodies is one of the environmental issues. Long term exposure of Cr (VI) levels of over 0.1ppm causes respiratory problems, kidney and liver damage. Sorption has proved to be the most efficient method of removal of toxic heavy metals from wastewater because of easy operation and availability of cheap adsorbents. This study aimed at removing Cr (VI) ion from contaminated water. Impact of pH was studied in the removal of Cr (VI) ions. The study involved assembling chitosan impregnated with saponin and zeolite. In addition, the oxides and hydroxides of Iron and Aluminum were cross linked in the matrix. Chitosan was the only biopolymer in the matrix. Batch experiments were carried out to investigate the impact of pH. The adsorption of Cr (VI) ions as a function of pH was in the initial pH range of 1 to 8. The results indicated that acidic pH strongly favored the adsorption. The Langmuir model was used as experimental data. The data obeyed the Langmuir model (R2=0.99) which shows a multilayer adsorption of Cr (VI) onto the heterogeneous surface. FTIR spectroscopy, XRD analysis were done on the adsorbent before Cr (VI) attachment. This study concluded that adsorption of Cr (VI) was pH depended, removal efficiency of the nanocomposite increased with decreasing pH. Maximum removal was at pH 2 where about 1.1ppm was the residual chromium concentration from an initial of 10ppm.Publication Impact of Ph on Cr (VI) Ions Remediation from Contaminated Water Using Endod Saponin-Chitosan-Zeolite-Metal Oxide Nanocomposite(International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies (IJPSAT), 2020-09) Anyango⃰, Beatrice; Nawiri, Pauline; Nyambaka, Hudson; Andala, DicksonContamination of water bodies by heavy metals due to discharge of metal containing effluents into the water bodies is one of the environmental issues. Long term exposure of Cr (VI) levels of over 0.1ppm causes respiratory problems, kidney and liver damage. Sorption has proved to be the most efficient method of removal of toxic heavy metals from wastewater because of easy operation and availability of cheap adsorbents. This study aimed at removing Cr (VI) ion from contaminated water. Impact of pH was studied in the removal of Cr (VI) ions. The study involved assembling chitosan impregnated with saponin and zeolite. In addition, the oxides and hydroxides of Iron and Aluminum were cross linked in the matrix. Chitosan was the only biopolymer in the matrix. Batch experiments were carried out to investigate the impact of pH. The adsorption of Cr (VI) ions as a function of pH was in the initial pH range of 1 to 8. The results indicated that acidic pH strongly favored the adsorption. The Langmuir model was used as experimental data. The data obeyed the Langmuir model (R 2 =0.99) which shows a multilayer adsorption of Cr (VI) onto the heterogeneous surface. FTIR spectroscopy, XRD analysis were done on the adsorbent before Cr (VI) attachment. This study concluded that adsorption of Cr (VI) was pH depended, removal efficiency of the nanocomposite increased with decreasing pH. Maximum removal was at pH 2 where about 1.1ppm was the residual chromium concentration from an initial of 10ppm.Publication Impacts of Farm Management Practices on Levels of Nitrates And Phosphates in water Along the Kithinu And Mutonga Rivers Catchment Areas, Kenya(Quest Journals, 2017-10-28) Journals, QuestThis study aimed at assessing the impacts of farm management practices on levels of nitratesand phosphates in water along the river Kithinu and Mutonga catchments areas, where small holder irrigation projects exists. Laboratory assessments of water quality at points upstream, within and downstream of theirrigation projects were done. Information on farm management practices was also obtained by use ofquestionnaires, interviews, focus discussions and observation from the farmers. From the study, farmers in theirrigation projects use a wide range of agrochemicals in crop production. They also widely use both organicand inorganic soil amendments in their farms. Soil conservation measures and protection of the riparian areasis also not embraced by all. Nitrate values detected in some sampling sites were beyond the recommended WHOand KEBS standards for drinking water. It was thus concluded that the lack of good farm management practicesin the study area was contributing to the presence of nitrates and phosphates in water, which is impactingnegatively on the ecosystem health of the area.The study further recommends more education to be done to farmers on good farm management practices and constant water quality monitoring for sustainable food production.Publication MEASUREMENT OF RADON ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION IN UNDERGROUND WATER OF BURETI SUB-COUNTY OF KERICHO COUNTY KENYA(Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 2020-09-08) Rotich, Charles K; Hashim, Nadir O; Chege, Margaret W; Nyambura, CatherineThe activity concentration of radon in underground water of Bureti sub-county was measured using liquid scintillating counter device. The average radon activity concentration in all the water samples was 12.41 Bql−1. The maximum and minimum activity concentrations of radon were 22.5 and 4.57 Bql−1, respectively. In total, 53% of the total samples analysed had radon concentration levels above the US Environmental Protection Agency-recommended limit of 11.1 Bql−1. The annual dose received by an individual as a result of waterborne radon was determined according to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation reports and was found to be 33.23 𝜇Svy−1. All the samples recorded a value <100 𝜇Svy−1 recommended by the World Health Organization and the European Union council.Publication Measurement of Radon Activity Concentration in Underground Water of Bureti Sub-County of Kericho County Kenya(Oxford Academic, 2020) Rotich, Charles K.; Hashim, Nadir O.; Chege, Margaret W.; Nyambura, CatherineThe activity concentration of radon in underground water of Bureti sub-county was measured using liquid scintillating counter device. The average radon activity concentration in all the water samples was 12.41 Bql−1. The maximum and minimum activity concentrations of radon were 22.5 and 4.57 Bql−1, respectively. In total, 53% of the total samples analysed had radon concentration levels above the US Environmental Protection Agency-recommended limit of 11.1 Bql−1. The annual dose received by an individual as a result of waterborne radon was determined according to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation reports and was found to be 33.23 𝜇Svy−1. All the samples recorded a value <100 𝜇Svy−1 recommended by the World Health Organization and the European Union council.