Food Processing

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Camel milk products beyond yoghurt and fresh milk: challenges, processing and applications
(© Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2023, 2023-01-09) Philip K. Marete · Alfred M. Mariga· Guyo Huka · Levi Musalia · Eunice Marete · Julius M. Mathara · Joshua M. Arimi
Camel (Camelus dromedarius and (Camelus bactrianus) are commonly domesticated in the arid and semi-arid regions because they are well adapted to live in harsh climatic conditions. Camel milk is widely consumed in these regions due to its high nutritional value and medicinal properties. It is rich in protein, minerals and vitamins. Moreover, it possesses therapeutic properties such as antimicrobial, anti-oxidants, anti-viral and anti-cancer. Camel milk can be processed into value added products with the aim of extending shelf life and diversifying its usage. However, there are various challenges experienced in processing of camel milk products. This study aims at reviewing published literature on camel milk products processing, processing challenges, the available solutions and applications. To achieve these aims, literature search was carried out using narrative methodology. Literature review provided information concerning processing of camel milk products, the challenges, how to overcome these processing challenges and applications. From this review of literature on camel milk products it can be concluded that it’s possible to process these products with some challenges but scientific and technological solutions are available that are improving over time.
Production and characterisation of camel milk yoghurt containing different types of stabilising agents
(Elsevier Ltd., 2022-11-15) Stephen Oselu a , Rebecca Ebere a , Guyo Huka b , Levi Musalia c , Eunice Marete d , Julius M. Mathara e , Florence Mwobobia a , Joshua M. Arimi a
As at 2020, Kenya was the best performing camel milk producer globally, with an annual production of 1.125 million tonnes. Despite the high production, about 50% of milk is wasted due to challenges affecting value addition to products such as yoghurt. The production of camel milk yoghurt faces multiple challenges, such as poor texture and weak structure, resulting in poor consumer acceptability. This study aimed to improve the physicochemical properties of camel milk yoghurt by adding different stabilising agents and calcium chloride. Yoghurt samples were processed using 3 L of camel milk, 6% sugar, 0.006% starter cultures, corn starch or modified starch and calcium chloride. The stabilisers were added at 2, 2.5, and 3% and Calcium Chloride at 0.075%. The milk was pasteurised at 90 C for 30 min. Fermentation was performed for 6 h at 42 1 C, and yoghurt was stored at 4 C. The total titratable acidity, pH and viscosity were monitored hourly during fermentation and storage, while syneresis and water holding capacity were analysed at 1, 7, 14 and 21 days of refrigerated storage. The sensory evaluation was done using the 9-point hedonic scale to rate yoghurt samples' overall acceptability, colour, sweetness and thickness. The TTA of camel milk yoghurt increased with increasing fermentation time (0–6 h) and storage time from 1 to 21 days. The pH decreased with increasing fermentation time (0–6 h) and storage time from 1 to 21 days. The addition of stabilisers increased the viscosity of the yoghurt, with 3% corn starch exhibiting the highest viscosity throughout the fermentation and storage time. Corn starch had a higher effect on viscosity compared to modified starch. Calcium chloride further amplified the viscosity of the yoghurt. The addition of stabilisers reduced syneresis by over 44% compared to bovine yoghurt. In this study, the best results of viscosity, syneresis and sensory evaluation were observed when stabilising agents were added at the rate of 2.5% modified starch and 0.075% Calcium chloride
Camels, Camel Milk, and Camel Milk Product Situation inKenya in Relation to the World
(Hindawi, 2022-03-08) Stephen Oselu , Rebecca Ebere , and Joshua M. Arimi
Kenya is the leading camel milk producer globally, with an annual production volume of 1.165 MMT, followed by Somalia(0.958 MMT) and Mali (0.271 MMT). In Kenya, pastoral tribes in North-Eastern parts rear about 4.722 million camelsaccounting for about 80% of all camels. Camels oﬀer locals various beneﬁts, including transportation of goods across thedeserts, meat, fur, and milk. Camel milk contains natural therapeutically and immunity-boosting properties due to the higherconcentration of lactoferrin, lactoglobulins, and lysozyme than bovine milk. Camel milk has been shown to havehypoallergenicity properties compared to bovine milk. Camel and human milk are similar in nutritional composition andtherapeutic properties. Camel milk is known to ﬁght various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, autism, hypertension, andskin diseases. Despite the standing of Kenya in the world in terms of camel milk production, Kenya lags considering the camelmilk products, industries, and marketing. This paper reviews recent literature on camels and camel milk production trends inKenya in relation to the world. The review also discusses various camel milk properties (nutritional and therapeutic) as well asthe camel milk sector situation in Kenya
Potential Application of CamelMilk as a Therapeutic Ingredient in Bath Soaps and Shampoos
(2024) Oginga Elly, Toeri Julius, Marete Eunice, Arimi Joshua
The increasing worldwide market for natural-ingredient-based cosmetic toiletries is fueled by the awareness of the dangers of synthetic cosmetics and benefits of natural-based cosmetics on the skincare and management of skin disorders. Besides naturally formulated cosmetics being biodegradable, they also contain ingredients which are chemically beneficial to human skin. Milk based cosmetics are very promising since milk is rich in essential components such as lactoferrins, vitamins, and lactic acids, which have shown therapeutic properties against disorders such as skin cancer, acne scars, and dandruff. One of the milk that is very promising in the cosmetics industry is the camel milk. Currently, there is limited information in literature regarding the use of camel milk in cosmetics and their benefits. Camel milk stands out from bovine milk following its unique therapeutic properties and chemical composition, making it a potential ingredient for skincare and haircare products such as bath soaps and shampoos. The aim of this paper is to review the available literature on camel milk composition and evaluate the contribution of camel milk constituents to cosmetics
Effects of optimizing fermentation time and stabilizers using response surface methodology on physicochemical properties of camel milk yoghurt
(Elsevier B.V., 2024-08-07) Philip K. Marete, Alfred M. Mariga, Guyo Huka, Levi Musalia, Eunice Marete, Julius M. Mathara, Joshua M. Arimi
The objective of this study was to produce camel milk yoghurt with desired qualities using optimized processing conditions (fermentation time) and ingredients (stabilizer and calcium chloride). The conditions were obtained through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) by lactic acid fermentation by inoculating the milk with Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus (YF-L903, CHR Hansen, Denmark. The study also determined the effects of fermentation time and ingredients on the quality of yoghurt. Fermentation time ranged from 2 to 22 h while stabilizer (corn starch) and calcium chloride (salt) ranges were 1.65–3.34 and 0.061–1.23 % respectively. The quality was monitored hourly for a fermentation period of 2–22 h by determining pH, total titritable acidity (TTA) and viscosity. Results indicated that viscosity was influenced by fermentation time, stabilizer and calcium chloride. The viscosity was increased from 0.01 to 0.4 and 0.01 to 0.3 by fermentation time, 0.01 to 0.2 and 0.01 to 0.3 by stabilizer and 0.01 to 0.5 and 0.01 to 0.6 Pa s by calcium chloride. Whereas the combined effects of calcium chloride and stabilizer increased the viscosity of yoghurt to 0.94 Pa s. Prolonged fermentation time, led to an increase in TTA and a decrease in pH. The finding from this study indicated that the optimal conditions required to produce camel milk yoghurt with desired qualities are a fermentation time of 10 h using 2.33 and 0.60 % corn starch and calcium chloride respectively. Under these conditions the produced camel milk yoghurt quality properties were a pH of 4.07, 0.32 % TTA and a viscosity of 0.35 Pa s.
Indigenous Technical Knowledge and Formulations of Thick (Ugali) and Thin (Uji) Porridges Consumed in Kenya
(African Journal of Food Science, 2016-12-31) Wanjala, W. G.; Onyango, A.; Makayoto, M.; Onyango, C
Thick (ugali) and thin (uji) porridges are important sources of nutrients for millions of Kenyans. They are made from unblended or composite flours of cassava and whole milled maize, finger millet or sorghum. Ugali is eaten as a main meal at lunch or dinner whereas uji is taken as a refreshing drink any time of the day. Uji is also an important complementary food for children. In addition, some formulations of ugali and uji are used to manage non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and type II diabetes. The aim of this study was to document indigenous technical knowledge on ugali and uji in Kenya. Primary information was collected through Focus Group Interviews in ten counties in western Kenya and corroborated with secondary literature. Unblended whole milled white maize and finger millet are the preferred flours for making ugali and uji, respectively. Whole milled maize, finger millet and sorghum are recommended for preparing ugali and uji for people suffering from non-communicable diseases. Uji prepared as a complementary food for child-feeding is usually supplemented with plant or animal proteins in order to improve its nutritional quality. The indigenous technical knowledge provided by the interviewees show that several opportunities exist for product innovations and quality and safety improvements.
Starch and Modified Starch in Bread Making: A Review
(African Journal of Food Science, 2016-12-31) Onyango, Calvin
Starch is an important source of energy in human nutrition. It is also widely used as a processing aid in several food and non-food industries. Starch in wheat flour contributes to the development of optimal bread crumb and crust texture. It is also responsible for physical deterioration of bread quality through staling. Starch is mainly extracted from starch-rich plants such as cereals, root and tuber crops and legume seeds. It can be modified using chemical, physical or enzymatic techniques to obtain modified starch. Traditional plant breeding or genetic modification can also be used to produce starches with modified functionalities. Modified starches are essential food processing aids because of their enhanced functional properties. The aim of this paper is to review the role of starch in bread making and subsequently elucidate the influence of modified starch on the quality of wheat bread.
Synthesis and In Vitro Digestion of Resistant Starch Type III from Enzymatically Hydrolysed Cassava Starch
(International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 2008) Onyango Calvin; Mutungi Christopher
Resistant starch type III (RS III) was synthesised from cassava starch by autoclaving followed by debranching with pullulanase, at varied concentrations (0.4–12 U g)1) and times (2–8 h), and recrystallisation ()18 to 90 C for 1–16 h). The highest RS III yield (22 g ⁄ 100 g) was obtained at an enzyme concentration of 4 U g)1 after 8 h incubation, followed by recrystallisation at 25 C for 16 h. Varying the recrystallisation conditions indicated that higher RS III yields (30–35 g ⁄ 100 g) could be obtained at 90 C within 2 h. Thinning cassava starch using a-amylase prior to debranching using pullulanase did not further increase the RS III content. In vitro digestion data showed that whereas 44% RS III was digested after 6 h, the corresponding value for cassava starch was 89%.
Nutrient composition, sensory attributes and starch digestibility of cassava porridge modified with hydrothermally-treated finger millet
(Science Direct, 2020) Calvin Onyango; Susan Karenya Luvitaa; Guenter Unbehend; Norbert Haase
ABSTRACT Cassava (CAS) porridge has low energy density and is a poor source of several nutrients. Its energy density and nutrient composition is normally improved by blending it with other flours. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of hydrothermally-treated (HTT) finger millet on nutrient composition, sensory attributes and starch digestibility of cassava porridge. Composite flour had higher protein, fibre, lipid and mineral content than cassava flour. The high α-amylase activity of HTT finger millet permitted the quantity of CAS-HTT flour to be raised from 9.5% w/v to 19% w/v without altering the free-flowing drinkable consistency of porridge. Partial substitution of CAS with HTT finger millet had no effect on starch digestibility and tannin content but increased the phytate content of CAS-HTT porridge. Hydrothermally-treated finger millet masked the aroma and colour of cassava resulting in dark-coloured CAS-HTT porridge with a bitter taste.
Crystallinity, Thermal and Morphological Characteristics of Resistant Starch Type III Produced by Hydrothermal Treatment of Debranched Cassava Starch
(Wiley Online Library, 2009-11-25) Mutundi C.; Rost F.; Onyango C.; Henle D.; Rohm H.
Cassava starch was debranched using pullulanase and the linear glucans recrystallized by incubation at 60°C or by temperature cycling at 120/60°C, and further subjected to heat-moisture treatment (HMT). Resistant starch (RS III) contents increased from 21.4 g/100 g in the debranched starch (DS) to 67.3 g/100 g in the debranched starch incubated at 60°C (DRS) and 47.8 g/100 g in the debranched starch subjected to temperature cycling (DCS), and further to 84.8 g/100 g and 88.4% g/100 g in HMT-DRS and HMT-DCS, respectively. Total crystallinity varied between 31.4-59.8% and the crystalline type was C in DS and DRS and A in DCS, HMTDRS and HMT-DCS. The melting properties were characterized by broad endotherms, but the exact melting region and enthalpy were dependent on recrystallization method. The main endothermic peaks of DS and DRS occurred at 103.9 and 109.8°C, respectively, whereas DCS exhibited split endotherms at 113.6 and 138.1°C. Heat-moisture treatment broadened the endotherms and increased their enthalpies. Scanning electron micrographs revealed surface topography differences related to size and aggregation of individual crystalline bodies.
Effect of Resistant Cassava Starch on Quality Parameters and Sensory Attributes of Yoghurt
(Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 2017-12-04) Mwizerwa, Herve; Abong’, George Ooko; Okoth, Michael Wandayi; Ongol, Martin Patrick; Onyango, Calvin; Thavarajah, Pushparajah
Resistant starch is known to impart a number of health benefits to consumers. It is therefore desirable to increase the content of resistant starch in popular foods such as yoghurt. The current research investigated the effect of cassava resistant starch synthesized by heat-moisture treatment of starch from I92/0057 cassava variety on physico-chemical properties and sensory attributes of yoghurt. Cassava starch rich in resistant starch was incorporated into yoghurt in the proportions of 0, 0.1%, 0.5% and 1%. Corn starch (0.6%) was used as control. Yoghurt was stored at 4oC for 21 days and the effect of starch modification on resistant starch content, viscosity, syneresis, total solids, acidity, lactic acid bacteria count and sensory properties were determined on weekly basis. Applying cassava starch rich in resistant starch into yoghurt in the proportions of 0.5% and 1% had significantly higher (p≤0.05) resistant starch content of yoghurt reaching 3.40 g/100 g and 5.58 g/100 g on day one and 1.92 g/100 g and 4.47 g/100 g on day 21, respectively. There was a significant correlation (p≤0.05) between resistant starch concentration and the physicochemical properties of yoghurt. Yoghurt treated with 1% resistant starch enriched cassava starch had the highest viscosity during cold storage which was determined as 2721.5 mPa s, mPa s, 2650.0 mPa s and 1034.5 mPa s at day 1, day 7, day 14 and day 21 respectively and it had the least syneresis (22.25%). Addition of cassava starch rich in resistant starch significantly increased (p≤0.05) the total solids content of yoghurt but did not significantly (P>0.05) change the sensory properties of yoghurt. The application of 1% of resistant starch enriched cassava starch as yoghurt thickener produces significant quantity of resistant starch in yoghurt with acceptable sensory and physico-chemical properties.
Rheological Properties of Wheat-Maize Dough and Their Relationship with the Quality of Bread Treated with Ascorbic Acid and Malzperle Classic® Bread Improver
(African Journal of Food Science, 2015-02-28) Onyang, Calvin; Unbehend, Ljiljana; Unbehend, Guenter; Lindhauer, Meinolf G.
The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of ascorbic acid and a commercial bread improver on the physical quality of wheat-maize bread, and establish correlations between the physical properties of the bread and rheological properties of the dough. Wheat flour was substituted with 10, 20 or 30% maize flour and the farinograph and extensograph properties of the dough were evaluated. Farinograph water absorption, dough development time, dough stability and farinograph quality number decreased whereas the degree of softening increased with increasing substitution of wheat flour with maize flour. Extensograph dough energy, resistance to extension, extensibility and maximum resistance decreased with increasing substitution of wheat flour with maize flour. Ascorbic acid and commercial bread improver improved bread specific volume and form ratio; decreased crumb firmness, resilience and chewiness; and increased crumb springiness and cohesiveness. Farinograph water absorption and degree of softening; and extensograph energy, extensibility, maximum resistance and ratio number showed the highest number of significant correlations (P ≤ 0.01 or P ≤ 0.05) with the physical properties of wheat-maize bread.
Physical Properties of Dry-Milled Maize Meals and Their Relationship with the Texture of Stiff and Thin Porridge
(African Journal of Food Science, 2014-08-31) Onyango, Calvin
Selected physical properties of white maize meal, obtained by different dry-milling techniques were evaluated and correlated to the texture of stiff and thin porridge. Sifted or par-cooked maize meals had finer particles than hammer-milled maize meals. Hammer-milled maize meals had lower water absorption indices (17-38%) and higher water solubility indices (WSI, 4-5%) than sifted (41-42 and 2-3%, respectively) or par-cooked (114 and 2%, respectively) maize meals. Sifted or par-cooked maize meals had lower breakdown viscosities (0-19 BU) and higher final viscosities (818-1925 BU) than hammer-milled maize meals (89-173 BU and 530-780 BU, respectively). Stiff porridge prepared from par-cooked maize meal (34% w/v), and thin porridge from dehulled and hammer-milled maize meal (10% w/v) had the firmest textures at 80.93 and 1.28 N, respectively. There was a negative correlation (P < 0.05, r = -1.00) between the WSI and total shearing force of stiff porridge prepared from par-cooked maize meal.
Functionalization of sweet potato leaf polyphenols by nanostructured composite β-lactoglobulin particles from molecular level complexations: A review
(Food Chemistry, 2022-03-15) Shadrack Isaboke Makori; Tai-Hua Mu; Hong-Nan Sun
Sweet potato leaf polyphenols (SPLPs) have shown potential health benefits in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Nowadays, consumption of SPLPs from animal feeds to foodstuff is becoming a trend worldwide. However, the application of SPLPs is limited by their low bioavailability and stability. β-lactoglobulin (βlg), a highly regarded whey protein, can interact with SPLPs at the molecular level to form reversible or irreversible nanocomplexes (NCs). Consequently, the functional properties and final quality of SPLPs are directly modified. In this review, the composition and structure of SPLPs and βlg, as well as methods of molecular complexation and mechanisms of formation of SPLPsβlgNCs, are revisited. The modified functionalities of SPLPsβlgNCs, especially protein conformational structures, antioxidant activity, solubility, thermal stability, emulsifying, and gelling properties including allergenic potential, digestibility, and practical applications are discussed for SPLPs future development.
Modification Of Gluten-Free Sorghum Batter and Bread Using Maize, Potato, Cassava or Rice Starch
(LWT - Food Science and Technology, 2011-04) Calvin Onyango; Christopher Mutungi; Günter Unbehend; Meinolf G. Lindhauer
Gluten-free sorghum bread was made from cassava, maize, potato or rice starch and sorghum in the ratios 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60 and 50:50. The other baking ingredients, on flour-weight-basis, were water (100%), sugar (6.7%), egg white powder (6%), fat (2%), salt (1.7%) and yeast (1.5%). Increasing starch content changed the batters’ consistencies from soft doughs to thin pourable batters. Increasing starch content decreased crumb firmness and chewiness, and increased cohesiveness, springiness and resilience of all breads. Cassava-sorghum and rice-sorghum breads had better crumb properties than maize-sorghum or potato-sorghum breads. Although the crumb properties of all breads declined (i.e. firmness and chewiness increased; cohesiveness, resilience and springiness decreased) on storage, the formulation containing 50% cassava starch retained the best overall texture.
Debranched Cassava Starch Crystallinity Determination by Raman Spectroscopy: Correlation of Features in Raman Spectra with X-Ray Diffraction And 13C CP/MAS NMR Spectroscopy
(Carbohydrate Polymers, 2012-01-04) Christopher Mutungi; Lars Passauer; Calvin Onyango; Doris Jaros; Harald Rohm
Because starch crystallinity influences the physical, mechanical, and technological aspects of numerous starch-based products during production and storage, rapid techniques for its assessment are vital. Samples of different levels of crystallinity were obtained by debranching gelatinized cassava starch, followed by subjection to various hydrothermal treatments. The recrystallized products were further subjected to partial hydrolysis with a mixture of α-amylase and glucoamylase prior to freeze–drying. Crystallinities were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and 13C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy, and correlated with FT-Raman spectra features. XRD crystallinities ranged between 0 and 58%, and agreed with crystalline-phase fractions (R2 = 0.99) derived from the respective 13C CP/MAS NMR spectra. A strong linear correlation was found between crystallinities and integrated areas of the skeletal mode Raman band at 480 cm−1 (R2 = 0.99). With appropriate calibration, FT-Raman spectroscopy is a promising tool for rapid determination of starch crystallinity.
Starch and Modified Starch in Bread Making: A Review
(African Journal of Food Science, 2016-09-27) Calvin Onyango
Starch is an important source of energy in human nutrition. It is also widely used as a processing aid in several food and non-food industries. Starch in wheat flour contributes to the development of optimal bread crumb and crust texture. It is also responsible for physical deterioration of bread quality through staling. Starch is mainly extracted from starch-rich plants such as cereals, root and tuber crops and legume seeds. It can be modified using chemical, physical or enzymatic techniques to obtain modified starch. Traditional plant breeding or genetic modification can also be used to produce starches with modified functionalities. Modified starches are essential food processing aids because of their enhanced functional properties. The aim of this paper is to review the role of starch in bread making and subsequently elucidate the influence of modified starch on the quality of wheat bread.
Effect of Drying Lactic Acid Bacteria Fermented Uji on Its Pasting Properties and Content of Carboxylic Acids
(University of Nairobi Department of Food and Nutrition Technology, 1999-01-01) Onyango, Calvin; Okoth, Michael; Mbugua, Samuel
The effect of fermentation and drying on the pasting properties and carboxylic acids of pure flours of maize, finger millet and cassava and of composite flours of maize-finger millet and cassava-finger millet were studied. The pasting properties were measured between 30°C and 96°C in a Brabender Amylograph while carboxylic acids from the uji slurries were determined on thin layer chromatography plates coated with 0.25 mm silica gel. Irrespective of the treatment given, the cereal flours of maize, finger millet and the composite of maize-finger millet consistently had higher onset and peak gelatinization temperatures than pure cassava or the composite of cassava-finger millet. Also the latter two flours developed higher peak viscosities and disintegrated more rapidly after attaining the peak than either pure maize, finger millet or the composite of maize-finger millet. The higher viscosities of the root flours was also reflected in the higher swelling powers and solubility values at 85°C. Fermentation increased the viscosity of the slurries. The greatest increases were recorded by maize (500BU) and the composite of maizefinger millet (780 BU). Fermentation did not affect gelatinization temperatures except for the maize-finger millet composite whose gelatinization temperature decreased by 10°C. Fermentation and drying resulted in increased viscosity when compared to the non-fermented flours, except for the drum dried cassava-finger millet composite. For all the drum dried flours there was a spontaneous increase in viscosity at 30°C when the Brabender Amylograph was switched on. The drum dried flours absorbed about four times their own weight of water; and since the starch granules were pregelatinized, reconstitution in cold water was difficult, as the flour particles tended to lump together, getting wetted on the surface and inhibiting the penetration of water into the interior. In contrast, sun and cabinet dried flours absorbed about 1.9 times their own weight of water and formed smooth slurries in cold water. Fermentation increased total titratable acidity and fixed acidity of the slurries to about 3.9% and 3.6% respectively, while the pH declined from 5.5 to 3.9. On drying there were no significant changes in (p0.05) from the uji prepared from fermented and nondehydrated slurries.
Cellulose Nanofibrils from Sugarcane Bagasse as a Reinforcing Element in Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite Films for Food Packaging
(Taylor and Francis, 2022) Otenda Brian Victor; Kareru Patrick Gachoki; Madivoli Edwin Shigwenya; Maina Ernest Gachui; Wanakai Sammy Indire; Wanyonyi Wycliffe Chisutia
Due to a high aspect ratio and enhanced mechanical strength, cellulose nanofibrils can be used as reinforcing elements in biocomposite films. In this study, cellulose nanofibrils were isolated from sugarcane bagasse using TEMPO-mediated oxidation and used to reinforce polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films. The carboxyl group content, functional groups, crystallinity, thermal properties, and morphology of the nanofibrils were investigated. The influence of TOCNF content on the transmittance, swelling, and tensile strength of PVA-TOCNF films were investigated by varying the TOCNF content of PVA films. The fibrils had a carboxyl content of 12.2 ± 0.6 mg/g CE due to the presence of carboxylic groups, an increased degree of crystallinity, and highly porous nanofibrils with lengths between 150 nm and 600 nm. Incorporation of the isolated fiber on PVA films increased the swelling capacity, tensile strength, and UV absorption but a decrease in the solubility of the composite. An increase in the TOCNF content increased the tensile strength of the films with the highest tensile strength of 6.6 ± 2.2 kPa being observed when the TOCNF content was 30%. The improvement in films properties implies that the films can be used as a packaging material due to enhanced water absorption and light-barrier properties.
Immunological Responses to Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and Intestinal Nematodes Infestation in Children
(Allan et al., 2017) Allan, Lynda A.; Yole, Dorcas S.; Mbai, Fiona N.
Pneumonia is among the leading killer diseases of children under five years in Kenya. The most common bacteriological cause of severe and fatal pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumonia (S. pneumonia). S. pneumoniae is usually carried in the nasopharynx of healthy people, but occasionally leads to invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPDs), such as meningitis, pneumonia, otitis, sinusitis and bacteremia. Annually, World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the occurrence of one and a half million of deaths in children under five years, mainly in poor countries.In Kenya, A 10-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV10) introduction into routine immunization schedule has resulted in reduction of the incidence of Invasive Pneumococcal diseases (IPD). However, there is a need to systematically evaluate the confounding factors that limit vaccine efficacy. A common although often overlooked confounding factor in the PCV10 vaccination efficacy is the presence of gastrointestinal nematode parasites in humans, particularly in children living in slums. Here the intestinal nematodes are prevalent and their effects result in an immuno-compromised state. We review the possibility of concurrent intestinal nematode infestation altering PCV10-induced responses in children and the need to devise efficacious treatment strategies

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