Thesis and Dissertation

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FORMS AND BIOAVAILABILITY OF ZINC AND COPPER ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN PARTS OF WATERMELONS FROM NGARA AND MWEA MARKETS, KENYA
(2018-09) Bernard Chege
During the last few decades analytical chemists and nutrition scientists have increasingly realized that total concentrations of chemical elements cannot give, in general, information about mobility, bioavailability, and the eventual impact of elements on biological organisms. Only the knowledge of the chemical species of the elements can provide an understanding of chemical and biochemical reactions, bioavailability, and subsequent paths of metabolism, thus leading to more information about essentiality or toxicity. This stresses the necessity of speciation analysis to determine the species of an element in a specific matrix. There is need therefore to determine the species of essential elements in different types of fruits, vegetables and other foods. One fruit that is increasingly being consumed and which is available throughout the year and has essential elements is watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai). There is need to determine the form in which the essential elements occur in the seed, red flesh, white flesh and peel in a watermelon to avoid deficiency when used as food to encourage use of thrown away parts. The study therefore aimed at providing information on bioavailability and forms of essential elements in the peel, white flesh, red flesh and seed parts of watermelons. Water and ethanol extractable elements are more available for absorption than those extracted by other solvents. Watermelons selected for the study are widely consumed and were purchased from Mwea and Ngara markets in Kenya. They were separated to peel, seed, white and red flesh and dried. Each of the watermelon part was sequentially extracted with hexane, dichloromethane, ethanol, water and lastly residue digested and Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS) was used to determine the levels of each element in various fractions. Free Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions and their organic acid complexes in the extracts constitute the bioavailable forms. The data of this study were analysed through One Way Analysis of Variance. The results of this study showed that there were variations in extracted mean levels of Zn and Cu minerals in the parts and varieties of watermelon. Significantly high water extracts mean levels (p < 0.001) of 0.46±0.01 mg/100 g, (46%) Cu was recorded in peel of sugar baby from Ngara market compared to the other watermelon samples. Crimson sweet watermelon samples bought from Ngara market recorded the highest Zn water extracts mean levels (p < 0.001) of 4.84±0.04 mg/100 g, (52%) in red flesh compared to the other watermelon varieties in the market. Charleston grey watermelon samples from Mwea market significantly recorded a high Zn water extracts mean levels (p < 0.001) of 5.96±0.01 mg/100 g, (61%) in white flesh than was recorded in the other parts of the watermelon varieties. Presence of hexadecanoic and octadecanoic acids which are complexing agents that enhance bioavailability of Zn and Cu were obtained in the watermelon extracts through GC - MS analysis. The bioavailable species of Zn and Cu could have been either as free ions or their organic acid complexes. Since Zn and Cu minerals were bioavailable in the four parts of the watermelon samples, people should eat all the parts of watermelon either when dry or fresh as a source of these nutrients. Result from this study will be used to guide people on nutrition aspect of a watermelon which will in turn enhance human health.
FISH PROTEIN HYDROLYSATE FROM DAGAA (Rastrineobola argentea) AS NUTRITIONAL COMPONENT IN MICROBIAL CULTURE MEDIA
(2016-09) Pere Katherine
Dagaa is a small pelagic fish found in Lake Victoria. It is mainly used as a nutrient source in the animal feed industry as well as for human consumption among the poor and the middle class. Fish protein hydrolysate as a source of nutrient in culture media has been explored in several fish species such as Silver Carp, Yellow Tuna, Yellow Stripe Trevally, Herring and Mackerel. Dagaa could also be an excellent candidate for culture media since it is rich in proteins, lipids and minerals. This would also add value to the underutilized fish species and minimize post-harvest losses of up to 50% during rainy seasons. In the current study, Dagaa as a source of nitrogen in culture media was explored by first preparing the Dagaa Protein Hydrolysate (DPH) using Alcalase enzyme. Proximate analysis for protein, lipid, moisture /dry weight and ash contents of DPH was performed and compared with that of Dagaa, Dagaa Fish Hydrolysate (DFH), Standard media Luria Bertani (LB) and Sabouraud’s Dextrose Broth (SDB). Mineral analysis was also performed on all these samples. The potential of DPH as a nitrogen source in microbial growth media was investigated using; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis and Rhodobacter capsulatus for bacterial growth studies while Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana were used for fungal growth. Potential of DPH to sustain production of commercial valued enzyme amylase was also investigated with R. capsulatus and B. subtilis in DPH-Starch media. This was done using Dinitrosalicylic (DNS) acid assay. M. anisopliae was analyzed for sporulation (conidia production) rate in DPH-Dextrose media. Proximate and mineral analysis indicated that there was significant difference (p<0.05) in the nutritional and mineral profiles of DPH and the two standard media (LB and SD). The protein content of DPH was higher than that of LB and SDB while the mineral content of DPH was lower than that of LB but slightly higher than that of SDB. LB had more Sodium content than DPH. Investigation of the potential of DPH as a nitrogen source in media indicated that in all microorganisms used in this study, there was no significant difference (p˃0.05) in DPH-FM and DPH-Dextrose as compared to standard media in the growth of microorganisms. The potential for DPH-Starch to sustain production of commercial valued amylase indicated that there was significant difference (p<0.05) in the sustenance of amylase production in formulated DPH-Starch and standard media by R. capsulatus and B. subtilis. DPHStarch media gave better production of amylase enzyme in both microbes than the standard media. There was no significant difference (p˃0.05) in the sporulation rates of M. anisopliae in DPH-Dextrose and the standard media. Hence DPH formulated media can be substituted as a potential culture media for microbial growth. The cost of formulation is low and provides an alternative means of value addition to Dagaa.
FINGERPRINTING AND RELATING JUVENILE CHARACTERS OF RICE TO YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS IN KIAMBU AND KIRINYAGA COUNTIES
(2019-02) SYLVIA A. HENGA
Rice is increasing as an important food and cash crop in Kenya and is third to maize and wheat in terms of consumption. Consumption has continually outstripped production resulting in massive importation. The main problem affecting productivity involves lack of proper information on best storage time, use of poor quality seed, varietal admixtures which has contributed to low yields. There is need to characterize genotypes. Microsatellit are useful in various plant genetic studies and plant characrerization. Accelerated aging is considered an excellent option as a vigor test due to shortest time of acquisition and efficient results. In the proposed study, seed quality experiments including germination, dormancy, purity, were carried out in the laboratory using eight rice varieties in a Completely Randomized Design. Accelerated ageing tests at 0,24,48 and 72hrs(45oC and 98%RH) were carried out JKUAT post-harvest laboratory using eight rice varieties‟ in four replications of100 seeds each. Data was collected on dates to plumule and radical emergence and height. Five varieties were used to produce seeds which were stored for 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 months respectively. The seedlings were transplanted into fields in a Randomized Complete Block Design using 5*6 factorial arrangement. The study also determined the relationship between juvenile characters and adult characters of rice in Kiambu and Kirinyaga counties. All the data were analyzed using GENSTAT statistical package. ANOVA and LSD at 5% significant level. Seed quality results showed that There was significant variation in both coleorrhiza and coleoptile formation among rice varieties (p<0.001), treatments (p<0.001) and interaction between rice varieties and treatment ((p<0.001). The difference between all treatments was significant with 72 hours treatment having the highest number of days to coleorhiza and coleoptile formation. Results showed that the effect of genotype on coleorhiza and colleoptille formation was significant (p<0.001). Genotype B317 had the earliest colleoptile formation 8.75days, coleorhiza formation (9.81), B317 also had the highest germination percentages at 7(33.69), 14 (52.44) and at 21 days after sowing (56.62). Mzungu had the latest number of days to coleorhizae (12.44), coleoptiles (11.18) and lowest germination percentages at 14(27.52) and 21days (31.31). The genotype had significant effect on germination index, seed length and seedling vigor index. In Mwea, there was a significant effect of storage time on germination, with 4 months giving the highest seedling vigor index (673.6), height at 1 month after transplanting (73.3cm), height at maturity (72.3cm) and 3 months giving the highest days to flowering(58.87) .The interaction between storage time and genotype on was significant, with genotype B217 stored for 3 months leading in height at one month after transplanting (87.7), height at maturity(91.8cm) .in Kiambu.The interaction between storage time and genotype was significant with 5months of storage having the highest seedling vigor index (759.5), 1000grain weight (69) and yield (15.5kg/ha). Analysis of molecular variance results indicated that the five polymorphic markers used in this study showed a total of 11 alleles across the loci of the 18 rice genotypes studied. Juvenile characters such as seedling vigor and height at transplanting had a positive and significant correlation to 1000grain weight.Genotypes TXD and B217 were identified by the 5 markers. TXD (Saro 5) was the best fit for fingerprinting as it was identified by only 1 marker. These results could be used in preparing rice seed certification procedures, in gene bank management and other seed storage ventures.
ELECTRON IMPACT ELASTIC SCATTERING OF STRONTIUM USING DISTORTED WAVE METHOD
(2018-11) KIMANI MARTIN KIRUGU
Differential and integral cross sections for electron-atom are useful for interpretation and understanding of electron contact with the targets and for determining dynamics of the collision processes. They are useful in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), upper atmosphere dynamics, Monte-Carlo simulation (MCS), Auger-electron spectroscopy (AES), in gaseous-exchange, laser development, plasma physics and fluorescent lighting. For elastic scattering of strontium very few calculations have been performed and currently there are no known results using the present method. Also the available theoretical results do not have other results to be compared with so it makes it important to obtain results to compare them and to be compared with future experimental results. In calculation of differential and integral cross section for elastic scattering of electron by strontium atom, first-order distorted wave born approximation method has been used to determine DCS and ICS at impact energies of 10eV to 200eV and scattering angles ranging from 00 to 1800 . Also in this study at the initial state, both initial and final channel distortion potential of elastic scattering of electron by a strontium atom are taken as the static potentials since it is an elastic scattering. The distorted waves are expanded in terms of radial wavefunctions and spherical harmonics, Numerov method was then used to solve the radial equations to obtain the radial wavefunctions. The Madison and Bartschat computer program DWBA1 for e- - H scattering was modified to perform the mathematical computations for e - - Sr scattering and the results for differential and integral cross sections are calculated and compared with the available results. The integral cross sections (ICS) results agree well qualitatively with the other theoretical results. At lower incident energies (10-30 eV), the present differential cross section (DCS) results disagree with results obtained from optical potential method. This is because the first order distorted wave method gives poor results at low impact energies and also the nature of the distortion potential used. At intermediate and higher energies (60-200 eV), the present DCS results agree well with the results obtained from optical potential method. In conclusion, the DWBA was developed and applied to 𝑒− - Sr scattering, changes on the DWBA1 computer program were made for strontium, differential cross section (DCS) and integral cross section (ICS) at impact energies 10-200eV for elastic scattering of electron-strontium were determined using DWBA at intermediate and high energies and the results compared with the other available results. From this work it was recommended that some experimental studies on electron impact elastic scattering of strontium should be made to give results for comparison with the calculated results, more theoretical studies using other methods should be conducted on DCS and ICS for purposes of comparison with the present results, a distortion potential that incorporates the polarization potential, exchange potential and absorption potential should be used in the calculation and the present method incorporating all the distortion potentials should be extended further for electron impact elastic scattering of other alkaline earth metals such as beryllium, cesium, ytterbium, and radium.
EFFICACY OF PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL NUTRITION INITIATIVE ON ENERGY AND MICRONUTRIENT INTAKE, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND PREGNANCY OUTCOMES IN MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA
(2019-03) ODIWUOR OYEHO FLORENCE A.
A large number of pregnant women in many parts of the world enter pregnancy at sub-optimal weight and height. A third of Kenyan population suffer from food insecurity that is further complicated by factors such as adverse weather conditions and increases in food prices. The result is malnutrition which primarily affects pregnant women and children under five years and significantly contributes to their morbidity and mortality. Maternal nutrition is critical for both mother and child as it lays fundamental foundation for the successful outcome of pregnancy. Kenya’s high rate of undernutrition among women of reproductive age are due to sub-optimal feeding practices, heavy workload, inadequate micronutrient intake and insufficient awareness and knowledge on nutritionally adequate diets among pregnant women leading to preterm births, low birth weight, high mortality and morbidity, impaired growth, and increased risks during childbirth for both mother and child. This study sought to investigate socio-demographic characteristics, determine nutrition knowledge and health conditions and effect of nutrition educationon nutrition knowledge and dietary practices, assess energy and micronutrient intake, determine physical activity levels, and determine pregnancy outcomes and associations between psycho-educational nutrition initiative and nutrient intake, physical activity and pregnancy outcomes among pregnant women in Migori County. A prospective cohort study design was used and simple random sampling was used to obtain a sample of 150 pregnant women from three sub-county hospitals purposively selected for study. Pregnant women of GA ≤26 weeks were recruited and enrolled into psychoeducational nutrition intervention study. Data was collected by 24 hour recall, International Physical Activity Questionnaire, biochemical analysis, anthropometric measurements and secondary data. Data was collected at baseline and after intervention for each woman and analyzed by Nutri-Survey computer package, IPAQ scoring protocol and SPSS. Data was summarized by descriptives and relationships between variables was tested by Chi square, regression model and pearson’s product moment correlation.ANOVA and t-tests were used to test for differences between means. Findings showed that the pregnant women were of low economic status. Nutrition education had positive significant associations with nutrition knowledge and practices. Most women had good health with on conditions interfering with their food consumption. Generally, there was improved dietary intake of all nutrients after the intervention although some did not meet the RDA even after intervention There was a slight reduction in physical activity factors and increased time for rest was observed after intervention although there was no significant reduction in activity levels (p ≤ 0.05). Weight gain (5.98 kg) was lower than recommended, mean gestation age was normal (37.74 weeks) but lower for preterm births category and mean BW (3039±489.5 g) was normal although 7% of new bornes had LBW. The study found significant effects of nutrition knowledge from the psycho-educational initiative on nutrient intake and pregnancy outcomes but found no effect on physical activity. The study concludes that nutrition education can be used to enhance pregnancy outcomes and nutrient intake among pregnant women. The finding is important to central and county governments, civil society, intergovernmental agencies, research groups, business enterprises and community under study
EFFECT OF INDOMETHACIN ON SELECTED PROTEIN DIGESTING ENZYMES IN THE NORWAY RAT, RATTUS NORVEGICUS
(2020-07) ONYINGO JOSEPH OPONDO
Rats are rodents of the genus Rattus and are commensals. They are rapid breeders and tend to breed all year round. Rats are responsible for the transmission of many diseases, are sources of allergens and harbour fleas and ticks which are parasites that carry diseases. Rats destroy agricultural produce, household items and documents leading to huge financial losses. Biological and physical methods of rat control have proved inefficient, while rodenticides use is associated with high cost, risks and dangerous side effects. Indomethacin has been shown to lead to 100% mortality in the Norway rat experimentally, with accumulation of undigested food in their stomach. This research therefore determined the effects of indomethacin on selected protein digesting enzymes pepsin, trypsin and amino peptidase in rats. One hundred and fifty female rats were randomly divided into six groups of twenty five rats each. Group A was used as control while B, C, D, E and F served as experimental groups and were given 12.5mg/Kg, 25mg/Kg, 50mg/Kg, 100mg/Kg and 150mg/Kg of indomethacin respectively. Five rats in each group were euthanized at intervals of one hour, two, four, eight and twelve hours from the time of indomethacin administration. The rats were dissected and the gut contents removed. The digesta from the stomach, duodenum and ileum were collected, centrifuged, and the supernatants gently pipetted into sterile vials and then frozen in liquid nitrogen. The activity of digestive enzymes in the specimens were determined by continuous spectroscopic enzyme bioassays. Analysis of data was done by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) while significant difference in the means of experimental groups was determined using post hoc ANOVA test (L.S.D). Regression analysis showed a linear relationship between indomethacin dose and enzyme activity. The results were expressed as mean ± standard error. The results showed that increase in dose of indomethacin administered leads to a decrease in the enzyme activity. Pepsin activity at 12.5mg/Kg dose was 214.2±0.6µg/mol while at a dose of 150mg/Kg the activity was 51.4±0.5µg/mol. Trypsin activity at a dose of 12.5mg/Kg, was 113.5±0.03 µg/mol while at 150mg/Kg dose the activity was 29.0±0.1µg/mol. Amino peptidase activity at 12.5mg/Kg dose was 126.5±0.04µg/mol while at 150mg/Kg dose, the activity was 33.5±0.09µg/mol. The enzyme activity is inversely proportional to the length of time taken after indomethacin administration. Pepsin activity after one hour was 214.2±0.6µg/mol while at twelve hours the activity was 108.8±0.4µg/mol. Trypsin activity after one hour was 113.2±0.03µg/mol while after twelve hours the activity was 55.5±0.05µg/mol. Amino peptidase activity after one hour was 126.5±0.04µg/mol while after twelve hours the activity was 67.8±0.03µg/mol). The mean enzyme activities in all groups were significantly different from each other at p<0.05. The results of this study have provided better understanding of the physiological basis of functioning of indomethacin as a rodenticide and its effects in digestion of rats. The findings of this study should be used by government officers to educate the masses on control of rats using indomethacin. The mechanism by which indomethacin decreases protein digestive enzyme activity should be investigated.
EFFECTS OF FARM SIZE AND GREENLEAF MARKETING ARRANGEMENTS ON SMALLHOLDER TEA PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY IN SELECTED COUNTIES IN KENYA
(2018-06) JOSIAH MWANGI ATEKA
The smallholder tea sub-sector makes an important contribution in the Kenyan economy. Although the subsector has enjoyed relative growth in terms of acreage, output and number of growers, productivity has remained low. The subsector is characterized by huge differentials between actual and potential yields, which imply existence of production inefficiencies. Studies on efficiency in the sector have focused on the regional differences in efficiency, but have not explicitly considered the effects of farm size on efficiency; despite rising concerns from stakeholders about subdivision of tea farms. Moreover, the influences of the alternative tea market channels (ATMCs) which are outcome of the tea market reforms have also not been accounted for in previous studies. This study estimated the level of technical efficiency (TE) and analysed the effects of farm size and marketing arrangements on efficiency in the smallholder tea subsector in Kenya. Using the multistage random sampling approach, data for the study was collected from a cross sectional survey of 525 tea farming households. The level of TE was estimated using the variable returns to scale DEA model, while the analysis of farm size effects was explored using the Fractional Regression (FR) model which accounts for the fractional nature of efficiency scores. The study further applied the Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) model to investigate the effect of marketing arrangements on TE. The study found that smallholder tea farms were technically inefficient and were operating below their optimal scale. The estimated mean of TE was 0.46 which implies that tea farmers can achieve their current tea output using only 46 percent of their inputs. The study further found that tea farmers in Nyamira County were technically less efficient than their counterparts in Bomet County. The effect of farm size on TE was found to be nonlinear with TE first falling and then rising with increase in farm size. Apart from contributing to literature on the relationship between farm size and efficiency, the study demonstrates that there exists a threshold of farm size (3.93 acres) beyond which increase in farm size leads to an increase TE. The other factors that were found to influence TE were participation in the Farmer Field School (FFS) extension program, the share of family labour applied in tea farming, the age of the farm and the education level of the household head. With regard to tea marketing, it was found that the ATMCs were used by 36.4 percent of the smallholders in the study area. From the ESR and PSM models the study found a consistent result that ATMC participation increases TE in tea production. The study recommends that Agriculture and Food Authority (AFA) and the respective county governments enact regulations that restrict farm subdivisions and implement policies that encourage consolidation of tea farms, support tea replanting to replace aging tea gardens and deepen market reforms in order to increase the farmers‟ access to ATMC. In addition, efforts should be directed towards promotion of the FFS extension, addressing labour market imperfections and ensuring that the policy formulation process in the tea sector accounts for regional specific heterogeneities that may impact on efficiency.
Effects of Computer Interactive Multiple Mice Technique On Learners’ Performance in Fractions In Primary Schools In Kenya
(2017-11) Metrine Wambani Sulungai
Studies attribute poor performance in mathematics especially in fractions in public primary schools to teacher centred teaching methods. However, few researchers have tried out interventions based on computer interactive multiple mice technique that promises to offer interactive and collaborative learning benefits enabling learners in resource-constrained schools to share one computer each with their own mouse. The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of computer interactive multiple mice technique on learners’ achievement, motivation and classroom interaction in learning fractions in public primary schools. The study was guided by the following objectives: to determine any difference in achievement between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice technique and those taught using conventional instructional methods, to find out any difference in motivation between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice technique and those taught using conventional instructional methods and to establish any difference in classroom interaction between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice and those taught using conventional instructional methods. Computer Support for Collaborative Learning theory was used to depict the relationship between computer interactive multiple mice technique and conventional instructional methods as the independent variables and learners’ performance as the dependent variable. The study adopted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test, non equivalent groups design. The target population was 5,487 Standard 6 learners in public primary co-educational schools in Kenya. A sample of 518 learners from 12 schools were selected. Sampling techniques used involved stratification, purposive and simple randomized sampling. Computer interactive multiple mice technique was used in the experimental group while conventional instructional method was used in the control groups. Two Mathematics Achievement Tests (Mathematics Achievement Test 1 and Mathematics Achievement Test 2) gauged learners’ achievement in fractions. Mathematics Achievement Test 1 was used as a pretest for the two groups. Mathematics Achievement Test 2 was used to determine learner achievement after instruction. Mathematics Lesson Observation Checklist (MLOC) was used to gauge learners’ classroom interactions. Learner Motivation Questionnaire (LMQ) was used to determine learners’ motivation towards learning fractions. The instruments were piloted in two public primary co-educational schools of Hamisi Sub County. Face and content validity were determined by experts in mathematics subject. Test retest reliability method was deployed. Reliability was established using Pearson’s Product Moment of Correlation Coefficient to determine if the instruments were reliable. Class observations was employed to provide comparative findings to supplement the quantitative data. To test the hypotheses, inferential statistics (t-test) were used at significance level of .05. Qualitative data was summarized using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation) and presented using tables and figures. A response rate of 89.1% (476) was realized. The findings revealed that on the pretest, the two groups were comparable. The posttest revealed significant difference with mean performance of the experimental group higher than the control group. The findings revealed significant difference in achievement between the groups (t474 = 21.925, p = .000.), improved mean scores in motivation and enhanced classroom interactions. Therefore, computer interactive multiple mice technique enhanced learners achievement in fractions, improved learner motivation and enhanced classroom interaction as compared to conventional instructional methods in public primary schools of Hamisi Sub County.
DETERMINATION OF URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS AND ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY AMONG NON-INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS PATIENTS VISITING KISII TEACHING AND REFERRAL HOSPITAL, KENYA
(2018-10) MAGETO VINCENT MOGAKA
People with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus have been found to be prone to urinary tract infections. There is a wide gap of information in developing countries regarding the prevalence and antibiotic sensitivity of the pathogens causing urinary tract infections in diabetic patients. Developed nations also face a relatively huge burden of managing urinary tract infections among non-insulin dependent diabetics. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria causing urinary tract infections among non-insulin dependent diabetic patients as well as determining the bacterial causative agents of urinary tract infections through biochemical confirmatory tests. The study was carried out in Kisii Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kisii County, Kenya. One hundred and eighty diabetic patients were enrolled in a cross-sectional study design. Clean catch midstream urine was collected from all participants and cultured in cysteine lactose electrolyte deficient agar for bacteria isolation. The isolates were later cultured in Mueller Hinton for antibiotic sensitivity testing. Classification of a positive culture for urinary tract infection was based on more than 100,000 (≥105 ) colony-forming units of a single bacterial species. All the data was extracted and analyzed with the statistical package for the social science (SPSS) version 20. The data was analyzed using frequencies, chi square (P<0.05) and logic regression to find the odds ratio. One hundred and seven participants were male (59.4 %) and 73 (40.6 %) were female. Sixty-three participants (35 %) showed symptoms of urinary tract infections. The overall prevalence of urinary tract infections was 20.6 % with 37 participants testing positive for urinary tract infection. The duration of diabetes mellitus was revealed to be significant (p=0.01) while age was also found to have a significant association with urinary tract infection (p=0.002). Out of the 37 (100 %) isolates, 35 (94.6 %) were gram negative and the remaining 2 (5.4 %) were gram positive. Escherichia coli was the most predominant isolate with 21 (56.8 %) isolates followed by 10 (27 %) isolates of Klebsiella pneumonia and then 4 (10.8 %) isolates of Proteus mirabilis. There were two (5.4 %) isolates of Enterococcus faecalis. Out of the 21 E. coli isolates, five isolates showed resistance to ampicillin, three isolates were resistant to nitrofurantoin and three isolates were resistant to co-trimoxazole. Out of 10 K. pneumoniae isolates, two were resistant to ampicillin, one was resistant to cephalexin and two were resistant to co-trimoxazole. Out of the four P. mirabilis isolates, there were three cases where one strain was each resistant to ampicillin, nitrofurantoin and cotrimoxazole. All 21 isolates of E. coli (100 %) were sensitive to gentamicin and cephalexin. All ten K. pneumoniae isolates (100 %) were sensitive to gentamicin and nitrofurantoin. These findings suggest an increasing antibiotic resistance among pathogenic causative agents of UTI among non-insulin dependent diabetic patients. A longitudinal study is recommended with a higher number of participants, in order to understand the risk factors of urinary tract infection among diabetic patients.
DETERMINATION OF FECAL CONTAMINATION STATUS OF SHALLOW WELLS IN DEDE DIVISION, MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA
(2018-11) OLUOCH EVANCE ODIWUOR
A shallow well is a hole dug, bored or drilled less than 50M deep to extract water. Contamination of shallow wells with fecal matter presents a grave public health threat in developing countries, such as Kenya, where large numbers of households lack access to clean and safe water supplies and rely on untreated surface water sources or shallow unprotected groundwater for domestic utilization. A report by WHO shows that 1 billion people practice open defecation with nine out of ten of them in rural areas and it is estimated that 1.8 billion people use a source of drinking water that is fecally contaminated. In Kenya unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene are the 2nd leading risk factors causing morbidity and mortality at the national and county levels respectively. In Dede Division, 65.5% of households depend on shallow wells for domestic needs and there are rising trends of confirmed cases of fecal-related diseases. The study sought to assess human and technical determinants of fecal contamination status of shallow wells in Dede Division. A cross-sectional study of households using the wells was conducted. Fisher’s formula was then used to calculate the sample size of the heads of households. Since the approximated number of households using shallow wells was <10,000 (4008), the two stages of the formula were adopted, giving a sample size of 386 heads of households. Out of the 180 shallow wells, 54 (30% of 180) were proportionately sampled and grab sampling technique adopted while sampling water from each of the sampled shallow wells. Basic physical parameters like temperature, turbidity and pH were analysed by a portable turbidity meter and pH meter while H2S rapid field test was employed for total corliforms analysis of grab samples in the field. Fecal contamination status of each well was determined by Membrane Filter Technique in kisumu government labaratory. Chi-square test was used to measure associations between variables while Multi-variate logistic regression analysis applied to test the hypotheses. The study reported significant relationship between level of knowledge of respondents on a well being too close to a latrine as a potential route (risk factor), a well located downhill a latrine, an open/uncovered well, surface run-offs into wells, dropping objects in shallow wells, using a dirty drawer, people/animals dropping in wells, doing laundry next to a well, and human/animal feces dropping in the well as potential routes of fecal contamination. It further revealed significant associations between several technical determinants and fecal contamination status of shallow wells e.g distance (M) from a latrine to a well, with majority of wells within safe distances of contamination (>10M) but still tested positive for fecal corliforms, distance (M) from the nearest cattle pen if any with a significant majority of shallow wells testing positive for fecal corliforms, damage or lack of concrete plinth, breaks/cracks on the parapet walls, breaks/cracks in the cover/top slab, breaks in the drainage channels, shallow well covered while not in use and shallow well fenced out respectively. Majority of shallow wells (69%) tested positive for E. Coli, a strong indicator for presence of fecal matter in water, with only 31% testing negative. Common human and technical determinants (risk factors) by and large are functions of fecal contamination status of shallow wells in Dede Division. Efficient protection of shallow wells is a critical pointer to their ground water quality. Households in Dede Division should ensure adequate treatment of shallow wells for fecal contamination before utilization of water from these sources. This can be both at source or household level. They should be sensitized by the relevant authorities on common routes of fecal contamination of shallow well water and safe hygiene and sanitation practices around shallow wells to prevent fecal contamination of the wells. Households using shallow wells in Dede Division should ensure proper sighting and location of latrines in relation to shallow wells to avoid fecal contamination of the wells through leaching. The pit latrines should be sighted down hill the shallow wells and located atleast 10 meters apart.
BIOEFFICACY OF ORGANIC EXTRACTS OF FISH POISON BUSH (GNIDIA GLAUCA, FRESEN) AGAINST COWPEA WEAVIL (CALLOSOBRUCHUS MACULATUS FABRICIUS)
(2018-11) WILHELMY MARION JEBET
Cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) is a major pests of stored cowpea in the tropical region of the world. In Kenya, the damage caused by C. maculatus impacts negatively on its economic and nutritional values and contributes to food insecurity. The widely adopted use of chemical pesticides is marred with health and environmental hazards. Global concern on synthetic chemicals has led to heightened restrictions and limitations on their use. This, therefore, has prompted the search for alternatives to synthetic pesticides. New studies are focusing on the use of botanicals as a novel approach to the management of pests. Gnidia glauca has been exploited by local people in control of post-harvest pests. However, no scientific research has been undertaken to evaluate its potential anti-insect properties. In this study, four organic leaf extracts of G. glauca (methanol, ethyl acetate, DCM and blend) were evaluated for contact toxicity, oviposition deterrence, inhibition of progeny emergence and repellency against cowpea weevil. The plant leaves were collected from Embu County, Kenya. The samples were prepared, extracted and investigation carried out under ambient laboratory conditions. The experimental design entailed five test concentrations (2g/100ml, 4g/100m, 6g/100ml, 8g/100ml, and 10g/100ml) of each extract, the untreated control, the solvent control and the positive control-Actellic. Each bioassay had four replications. Adult weevils (1-3 days old) were exposed to the extracts and mortality was monitored daily for the first four days. Subsequently, oviposition deterrence was assessed on the 15th day while inhibition of progeny emergence was evaluated on the 49th-day post-treatment. Extract repellency was assessed for the first 6 hours after treatment. Screening for plants phytochemicals was conducted using the standard recommended procedures. The results of this study revealed all G. glauca extracts, to a varied extent, induced mortality on C. maculatus. Mortality was concentration and exposure time dependent. Highest mortality of 89.74% was recorded with 10g/100ml ethyl acetate extract 96 hours post-treatment. The extracts significantly deterred oviposition with the 10g/100ml concentration of ethyl acetate, DCMand blend statistically (p>0.05) comparable to the activity of synthetic pesticide. All the extracts were found effective in inhibition of progeny emergence. Ethyl acetate extract at the test dose of 10g/100ml demonstrated the highest inhibition of 99.3% while the least inhibition of 9.03% was exhibited by 2g/100ml methanol extract. G. glauca extracts proved to be attractant of C. maculatus rather than repellant, none of the extract concentration attained repellency greater than 50%. Results also showed that the extracts had tannins, phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides and steroids which have been associated with insect control properties. It was therefore concluded that the plant extracts, possess bioactivities against Callosobruchus maculatus on the tested parameters of contact toxicity, oviposition deterrence, inhibition of progeny emergence and repellency. Hence the studied extracts can further be purified and developed into the plant-derived bio-pesticides to control C. maculatus.
ASSESSMENT OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN KENYA TO FORECAST LOCAL PRODUCTION SUFFICIENCY
(2017-10) SARAH KADESA VUGIGI
The World Health Organization’s global strategy on public health aims to support Member States to improve access to essential medicines. The desire of Kenya Government to implement this is expressed by formulation of Kenya National Pharmaceutical Policy (2010) which encourages local production of essential medicines for self-sufficiency. The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya is engaged in production of various types of dosage forms but its capacity and capability to produce essential medicines for Kenyans have not been determined. The aim of this study was to assess the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya to forecast local production sufficiency. This was attained by evaluating the manufacturing capability, production capacities and compliance with international marketing authorization standard of the Kenyan pharmaceutical industry. The 24 licensed manufacturers of medicines for human use were assessed. Data was collected on the current drug situation in Kenya by scanning Pharmacy and Poisons Board database to determine range of products that are registered in Kenya. Local pharmaceutical manufacturer’s product lists, Kenya Essential Medicines list and pharmaceutical tender lists of three major procurers in Kenya (Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies) were examined to establish the proportion of products which was manufactured locally. Prices competitiveness and market share of local products were evaluated and subsequently, pharmaceutical equivalents of 150 locally manufactured essential medicines were determined. Data on production capacity for 5 years (2010-2014) and compliance of facilities with good manufacturing practices standard and other prerequisites of marketing authorization was obtained using a structured questionnaire. Results showed that solid dosage forms were majority (54.9 %) of local products and sterile preparations were minority (2.7 %). Locally manufactured products accounted for 14.5 % of registered and 21.5 % of retained products. Local firms manufactured 38.4 % of products listed as essential medicines and 55.6 %, 24.5 % and 21.8 %, respectively, of pharmaceutical products procured by Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies. The overall percentage of local pharmaceutical equivalents was 32.5 % for registered products. There was no variation between mean prices of local and imported pharmaceutical equivalents. Scatter diagrams demonstrated that imported pharmaceutical products comprised both low and highly priced brands. The overall utilized production capacity (two shifts) was 21.5 %; tablets (24.1 %), capsules (12.8 %), liquids (25.3 %), dry syrups (21.8 %), external preparations (21.3 %) and oral rehydration salts (23.6 %). This study projected the year for self-sufficiency in non-sterile medicines produced in the local industry as 2043. Good manufacturing practices standard was satisfactory at 11 facilities while the rest were striving to achieve compliance. Research and development of new products was limited in most facilities with 1 % of the workforce deployed in this department. It is concluded from this study that Kenya depends heavily on imported drugs for her essential medicines needs. Majority of local products were less competitive than imported products and production capacity was underutilized. Majority of manufacturers adhered to current good manufacturing practice standards but were inadequate in research. This study recommends augmentation of research and development by the local pharmaceutical industry to generate new products. In addition, substantial government support is required to propel the industry to improve product range, product competitiveness and production capacity utilization.
ASSESSMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY CONCENTRATION AND RADIATION HAZARDS INDEX FOR BUILDING MATERIALS USED IN BABADOGO ESTATE, NAIROBI CITY COUNTY, KENYA
(2022-05) AMUKAH KENNETH OBORAH,
Natural radioactive materials in certain conditions can get to hazardous radiological level. Some of these hazards are not prone to control as well as, they are usually referred to as the background radiation. The aim of my research work is to evaluate natural radioactivity concentration and radiological impacts on representative sampled building materials collected from different locations in Babadogo estate within Nairobi City County. The selected samples were crushed, sieved dried and store for four weeks after which, analysis done using gamma ray spectrometer was put into action for spectral data acquisition then analysis. The activity concentration levels of 238U, 232Th and 40K for the selected samples of building materials was measured by the use of gamma- ray spectrometry method. Radiological parameters were evaluated based on the prerequisite activity concentration obtained. The analyzed data compared with the standard acceptable values. The activity concentration in 40K varied from 55±3 to 2647±132 Bq/kg giving average value of 831 ±42 Bq/kg, 238U varied from 39±2 to 3602±180Bq/kg giving average figures of 378±19Bqkg¯1 and 232Th ranged from 5.000±0.300 to 4213±211Bqkg¯1 giving mean figure of 290±15Bq/kg . Calculated mean figures for activity concentration surpassed the world mean figures of 420Bq/kg, 33Bq/kg, 45Bq/kg in 40K, 238U and 232Th respectively. Absorbed dose rate calculated ranges between 73±4 and 4777±239nGyh¯1 having average value of 540±27nGyh¯1 .The mean number for the absorbed dose rate was above the world acceptable mean value of 54nGyh¯1 . The calculated annual effective dose rate varied from 0.040±0.002mSvy¯1 to 2.340±0.117mSvy¯1 having average figure of 0.260±0.013mSvy¯1 ,which was above the world average of 0.070mSvy¯1 but below the maximum dose constraint of 1mSvy¯1 .These results show that building materials in Babadogo estate are safe and can be used for construction of buildings and thus can be continued using as further research is done on other building materials not covered in my research work.
ADOPTION OF TALENT MANAGEMENT FOR COMPETITIVENESS AMONG FIVE – STAR HOTELS IN NAIROBI CITY COUNTY, KENYA
(2020-10) OMOKE JAPHETH OMAE (BSC; HTM)
The study sought to assess the adoption of talent management to competitiveness among five–star hotels in Nairobi City County. The concept of talent management comprises strategies for attraction, selection, development, engagement, and retention of knowledge and talented individuals. These individuals can create quality, diverse and exceptional products that form the competitiveness of the five-star hotels. The competitiveness of the hospitality industry in Kenya is held back due to a shortage of talent, loss of talent, and critical knowledge to other industries. The study investigated; conceptualization of talent management, hospitality core competencies required in talent, inherent approaches used in each talent management practices, the extent of talent management adoption, outcomes of talent management, and the relationship between talent management among five–star hotels in Nairobi City County. The study adopted a mixed-method research design and specifically a QUAN + qual research approach. Purposive sampling was used to select fivestar hotels in Nairobi City County and the hotel executives’ respondents. A simple random sampling technique was used to select guest participants. Data were collected from 145 participants using a semi-structured questionnaire, Servqual structured questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews. The data analysis was done using; descriptive statistics, content analysis, thematic analysis, and inferential statistics. Linear regression results revealed that, among the significant predictors (talent selection, talent engagement, hospitality core competencies, talent and knowledge retention, and talent development), selection was the most significant. It meant that their competitiveness is hinged on the selection of talented individuals. Null hypotheses on the hospitality core competencies (β= -0.195, p =0.020), talent attraction approaches (β = -0.202, p= 0.009), talent engagement approaches (β = - 0.224, p= 0.002), talent and knowledge retention approaches (β = -0.189, p= 0.024) were rejected and their impact was not enough to influence competitiveness positively. Null hypotheses on talent selection approaches (β = 0.512, p= 0.001), talent development approaches (β = 0.296, p= 0.002) and outcomes of talent management (β = 2.061, p= 0.018) were also rejected and they impacted competitiveness positively. The null hypothesis on the extent of talent management adoption (β = 4.414, p= 0.130) was maintained indicating that it did not influence competitiveness. Null hypothesis on the relationship between talent management and the competitiveness of five–star hotels; an executives’ perspective was rejected (β = 1.094, p= 0.001). A second null hypothesis on the relationship between talent management and the competitiveness of five–star hotels; a guests’ perspective was rejected (r = -0.277, p =0.009) but showed the need for improvement on talent management aspects to positively affect competitiveness. This thesis recommends that five-star hotels conceptualise talent management from the perspective of exclusive subject and positions. Hotels also need to enrich hospitality core competencies so that they create quality and diverse sustainable products and services to serve a wider clientele. Additionally, hotels need to enhance their employee brands to boost employee value proposition so that talent is attracted. Talent engagement levels also need to be improved to draw valuable knowledge and effort from talent. The retention of talent and protection of tacit knowledge ought to be improved for greater competitiveness. Talent policies and budgets are put in place. This study has been conducted among the management teams and guests in five-star hotels; it is recommended that a related study is conducted on individuals considered talent in the same hotels
DIAGNOSIS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ZOONOTIC NONTUBERCULOUS MYCOBACTERIA AMONG DROMEDARY CAMELS AND HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS IN SAMBURU COUNTY, KENYA
(2020-09) LUCAS LUVAI AZAALE ASAAVA
Zoonotic nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) cross infect a wide range of domestic animals, wildlife and man causing various diseases. Despite the public health implications associated with mycobacterial infection and the existing close interaction of pastoralists and camels, information on diagnosis and epidemiology of zoonotic NTM amongst camels and closely associated community members is scanty. The present study was a one-health approach study involving diagnosis and epidemiology of zoonotic NTM infection among dromedary camels and associated household members in Samburu East sub-county. The study was cross sectional covering camels slaughtered at county abattoirs as well as household members and camels. Abattoirs sampled included Isiolo and Athi-River camel abattoirs, where all sampled camels were confirmed to have come from Samburu east. Household camel sampling strategy involved stratification of the study area to Wamba and Waso rearing areas. Sampling at abattoirs was consecutive for camels identified to have TB-like lesions during meat inspection. People presumed to have TB from amongst the sampled households were requested to provide a sputum sample. Screening of lactating camels for Mycobacteria infection was done using single intradermal comparative tuberculin test (SICTT) in a consecutive sample of 612 lactating camels from 83 households. A consolidated milk sample from all four mammary quarters was collected from 238 tuberculin test reactive camels. Post mortem (PM) examination was conducted on 1600 camels originating from the study area. A semistructured questionnaire was administered to collect data on risk factors from 83 respondents. All milk, sputum and tissue samples were analysed at Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)/Centre for Respiratory Disease Research (CRDR) enhanced BSL2 laboratory using mycobacteriology, molecular speciation using GenoType® Mycobacterium line probe assay (HAINLifescience), drug susceptibility testing, 16S rDNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. This study was conducted between April, 2017 and December, 2018. Results indicated that the proportion of M. bovis and M. avium reactors was estimated at 6.05% and 39.38% respectively. Out of 238 milk samples, 57 (23.95%) had culture positive acid fast bacilli (AFB). Out of 132 suspected lesions on PM, 27/1600 1.69% (binomial 95%, CI: 1.11%-2.45%) were AFB positive on culture. Of the 48 sputum samples, 7 were AFB culture positive. The NTMs were observed to occur widely in various samples analysed, including post mortem lesions: M. fortuitum 17/27 (62.96%), M. scrofulaceum 3/27 (11%), M. szulgai 2/27 (7.4%); camel milk samples: M. szulgai 20/57 (35.09%), M. monacense 5/57 (8.77%), M. litorale 4/57 (7.02%), M. fortuitum 3/57 (5.26%), M. lehmannii 3/57 (5.26%), M. elephantis 3/57 (5.26%), M. duvalii 3/57 (5.26%); and in Human sputum samples: M. fortuitum 1/48 (2.08%), M. szulgai 2/48 (4.16%), and M. litorale 1/48 (2.08%) among others. These findings demonstrate high levels of infection with NTM in both humans and camels. Camel post mortem analyses revealed bronchial, mediastinal lymph nodes and lung lobes were most affected tissues. Several NTMs of medical importance with varying level of commonly used TB drugs sensitivity. The pattern of resistance to first-line TB drugs was as follows: Isoniazid (100%), rifampicin (97.9%) and ethambutol (65.3%). All NTM species isolated were highly resistant to first-line TB drugs. Camel breed, age, production system, origin of new introductions, migration and herd size were identified as risk factors for infection in camels (p<0.05). Surveillance and notification systems for NTMs including specific immunological test for NTMs diagnoses are needed. The public health significance of NTM in camels and humans needs further unravelling.
INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND ITS IMPACT ON MALARIA TRANSMISSION POTENTIAL AMONG THE MAJOR VECTORS IN TESO SUB – COUNTIES, WESTERN KENYA
(2020-11) GITHINJI EDWARD KAREITHI
In Africa, knockdown resistance (kdr) is strongly linked to pyrethroid insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l; which may have vital implications to the current up-scaled indoor residual spraying (IRS) and pyrethroid-treated bed net campaigns. This investigation proposed to evaluate the extent and levels of insecticide resistance among major vectors in Teso North and South sub counties, western Kenya, and its impact on entomological parameters of malaria transmission. For WHO phenotypic susceptibility tube assay, mosquito larvae were sampled using a dipper, reared into 3-5 days-old females which were exposed to 0.75% permethrin, 0.05% deltamethrin and 0.1% bendiocarb. Random sampling of adult mosquitoes [3448] was done using adult mosquito sampling methods. Abdominal statuses, parity rates, age grading and molecular species identification were recorded. Kdr East TaqMan PCR probed for the mutant allele and wild type. Sporozoite ELISA detected circum-sporozoite protein. Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto were the significant majority in terms of species composition at 78.9% as compared to Anopheles arabiensis (20.7%) [t (4, 4) = 11.1268, p < .05]. Highest proportion of SS alleles (86.1%) was also found among Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquitoes. Susceptible Kengatunyi cluster had higher proportion of An. arabiensis than resistant Rwatama. Bendiocarb caused 100% mortality while deltamethrin had higher insecticidal effects (77%) on female mosquitoes than permethrin (71%). There was a significant difference in SS allele frequencies between Kengatunyi (57.8%) and Rwatama (93.4%). Of the parous vectors, 75.6% were homozygous resistant, 2.4% were heterozygous and 22% were homozygous susceptible. Mosquitoes in the resistant cluster had an average lifespan of 16 days compared to 5 days in the susceptible cluster. Resistant clusters had the largest number of infective bites per person per night at 0.4. Of the sporozoite positive mosquitoes, 71.4% were homozygous resistant and the rest homozygous susceptible. Heterozygous LS allelic vectors had significantly higher affinity for bovine blood while SS allelic vectors had significant higher affinity for human blood. All SS, LS and LL carriers were biting more at dawn than at dusk. All results were significant at p<0.05. Most likely, the higher the selection pressure exerted indoors by insecticidal nets the higher were the resistance alleles. Use of pyrethroids impregnated nets and agrochemicals may have caused female mosquitoes to select for pyrethroid resistance, consequently impacted on species composition and behaviour patterns. Confirmed phenotypic and genotypic insecticide resistance in major malaria vectors in Teso North and Teso South sub counties, impacted significantly on vector species composition, age structure, density, infectivity, feeding and resting behaviours. Insecticide resistance management practices in Kenya should be fastracked and harmonised with agricultural sector agrochemical based activities and possibly switch to carbamate usage. The implication of such high resistance levels in the mosquitoes is that resistance is likely to persist and or even increase if mono-molecules of permethrin and deltamethrin or both continue to be used in all net and non-net based mosquito control purposes. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) that prohibit certain metabolic enzymes within malaria vectors and has been combined into pyrethroid-LLINs to create pyrethroid-PBO nets, may be an extremely viable option against the spread of insecticide resistance in Kenya.
EFFECTS OF PROBIOTICS ON GROWTH, FLESH QUALITY AND HEMATOIMMUNOLOGICAL STATUS OF CULTURED NILE TILAPIA (Oreochromis niloticus) IN KIRINYAGA COUNTY, KENYA
(2026-08) OPIYO, MARY ADHIAMBO
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) culture in Kenya is mainly conducted in low input ponds where supplementary feed is given alongside pond fertilization. Excess nutrients in the culture water in form of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) may make the culture environment susceptible to invasion by disease-causing microorganisms. In the recent past, probiotics have received much attention as a new strategy in fish health management and have been documented to improve fish growth performance and immunity in fish cultured in recirculating systems. However, their effect in tilapia cultured in low input ponds is still relatively unknown. In this study, monosex O. niloticus fingerlings with a mean weight of 39.75 ± 0.05 g were randomly stocked at 50 fish m-3 in 1.25 m3 cages in low input earthen ponds. The fish were fed twice daily at 3% body weight on seven isonitrogenous (28% crude protein) diets supplemented with either Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1×1010 CFU g-1) or Bacillus subtilis (1×109 CFU g-1) at different levels as follows: No probiotic (Diet 0); S. cerevisiae at 2 g kg−1 (Diet 1), 4 g kg−1 (Diet 2) and 6 g kg−1 (Diet 3); and B. subtilis at 5 g kg−1 (Diet 4), 10 g kg−1 (Diet 5) and 15 g kg−1 (Diet 6) for a period of 7 months. The fish were sampled monthly for weight and length measurements. Hemato-immunological parameters were determined by blood sampling and hematological analysis for red blood cells, white blood cell and haemoglobin counts. Blood serum assay was conducted using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits to determine the serum protein, albumin, globulin levels and lysozyme activity. Microbiological samples were analyzed through sub-culturing to obtain pure cultures on nutrient media and enumerated through standard methods. Results of the trials indicated that the highest performance was achieved with Diet 2. The highest final weight (255.31 ± 3.19 g), Specific growth rates (SGR) (0.77±0.01% day-1) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) (1.61 ± 0.02) were recorded in fish fed Diet 2. This was followed by fish fed Diet 5. Results of growth performance analysis indicated that fish fed on probiotic-supplemented diets had significantly better growth, nutrient utilization and FCR than fish fed on the control diet (P < 0.05). Probiotic supplementation significantly affected the body composition of the fish (P < 0.05). Saccharomyces cerevisiae at 4 g kg-1 (Diet 2) led to significantly high protein (86.06%) (P < 0.05) while B. subtilis at 5 g kg-1 (Diet 4) led to significantly higher protein (89.40%) (P < 0.05). Crude lipid and ash content were significantly lower in the fish fed probioticsupplemented diets (P < 0.05) compared to the control. Results of hemato-immunological analysis indicated that haemoglobin (Hb), red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), serum protein, albumin, globulin and lysozyme activity were higher in fish fed on probiotic-supplemented diets and lower in the control group (Diet 0). Probiotic significantly affected hemato-immunological parameters (P < 0.05). Fish fed on probioticsupplemented diets retained the probiotics in their guts and had lower microbial load in their muscle (P < 0.05). This study shows that incorporation of probiotics in diets of Nile tilapia in low input ponds promotes growth performance, enhances body composition, improves immunity and manipulates gut microbiota of fish. The two probiotics differ in effect at different levels of application. Probiotic S. cerevisiae exhibited the best performance at 4 g kg-1 while B. subtilis had the best performance at 10 g kg-1. Probiotics are therefore recommended for use in low input fish culture systems for better nutrient utilization, higher yields and improved fish health for increased aquaculture production.
CHARACTERIZATION AND CONTROL OF PATHOGENIC PARASITES IN NILE TILAPIA (OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS LINNAEUS 1758) IN FISH FARMING SYSTEMS
(2020-10) DAVIES MUKWABI MAKILLA
In Kenya, fish farming has been expanding in recent years, with Government support through financial and input subsidies to small scale farmers. The sub sector generates a variety of benefits such as food and nutrition and develops trade. However, the sub sector faces the challenges of fish diseases, given that the fish production facilities support high-density living conditions that are favorable for spread of parasitic diseases. Besides, when fish that is infected is consumed by humans, the humans may be infected, especially when eaten fresh. Infected fish lowers their market value and sunctions may also be imposed on fish exports. Knowledge of fish parasites in aquaculture systems as well as treatment options available would enlighten fish farmers on the specific actions to take in order to harvest quality fish. The study was cross sectional carried out in Bungoma County from August 2015 to Decemebr 2017. The main objective of the study was to characterize and evaluate control options of pathogenic parasites present in fish farming systems in Bungoma County. Bungoma County was chosen for this study because it is one of the Counties that has high potential for fish farming. The County hosts one out of the public fish farms and hatcheries at Chwele besides authenticated private fish hatcheries. He hatcheries are sources of fish fingerlings as well as training and demonstration centres for fish farmers. At every fish pond, six water quality parameters were assessed using a portable auto sampler. Farmed Nile tilapia was randomly sampled to determine the pathogenic parasites and bacteria present in various organs. Commercial fish feeds were also purchased from two fish feed millers in Bungoma County and assessed for parasite presence. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and genetic sequencing analysis were conducted in order to assess the genes responsible for antimicrobial resistance. The data was entered into Micro Soft Excel (Windows 10) spreadsheet and analysed by SPSS Software. It was found that there was significant difference only in temperature of the pond water sampled across the sub counties (F=15.5; df=5; p<0.001). Helminthes recovered were Pallisentis tetraodontis, Pallisentis spp., Acanthocephalus spp., Procamallanus spp. and Philometroides spp. from Nile tilapia and Cleidodiscus spp. from pond water. Bacteria that were isolated from Nile tilapia were Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In fish pond water, Aeromonas hydrophila was isolated while Streptococcus iniae was isolated from fish feeds. Besides, there was a significant difference in distribution of total viable aerobic colony counts in fish ponds water across the different sub counties (H=6;df 5; P< 0.041). Furthermore, it was found that there was significant difference in the distribution of Aeromonas hydrophila in fish ponds across the different sub counties (H=3;df;P< 0.016). The external parasites were eliminated by formalin (36% formaldehyde) at concentration of 25ppm for 1h and Hydrogen peroxide at 75ppm for 30 min. The bacterial isolates were found to be significantly different in responses to antimicrobial agents (OLR;df= 16; P<0.00). When the bacterial isolates were subjected to PCR, all five bacterial pathogens isolated from fish, pond water and fish feeds were found to contain blaTEM gene amplified at 424bp. The sequences blaTEM gene returned 100% identity with GenBank Accession number; BankIt2236899 Seq1a MN114035 to Seq 9b MN114052). This study found that the blaTEM gene was present in recovered Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus iniae. It is recommended that Formalin and hydrogen peroxide as well as potassium permanganate should used to manage fish helminthes in the ponds.
Streptococcus pneumoniae SEROTYPE PREVALENCE, ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS AMONG CHILDREN ATTENDING GERTRUDES CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL IN NAIROBI CITY COUNTY-KENYA
(2020-06) WALEKHWA MICHAEL NYONGESA
Pneumococcal disease remains the biggest killer of children living in Kenya. This is true despite inclusion of the 10-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in the Kenya Expanded Program on Immunization. Serotype replacement, emergence of antibiotic resistance, inaccurate laboratory diagnosis due to optochin resistant bacterial types and a range of environmental and host related risk factors have been touted to be the cause of these statistics elsewhere. This study sought to establish prevalence of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes, antibiotic susceptibility patterns and associated risk factors among PCV-10 vaccinated and unvaccinated children attending Gertrude’s Childrens Hospital. A total of 206 children were recruited for this study. Nasopharyngeal swabs were the main specimen used. Culturing and isolation of the bacteria was done on blood agar with gentamicin and plain blood agar plates respectively. Optochin and bile solubility (where necessary) tests were done as confirmatory assays for the bacteria. Pneumococci serotyping was done using the Gold Standard Quellung Reaction test while the disk diffusion method was used to asses antibiotic susceptibility profiles. Out of the 206 subjects sampled, 20.39% (n=42) were found to be carriers of the bacteria. About 52% (n=22) of the carriers had received the recommended dose of PCV-10, while 48% (n=20) had not. Almost all (n=41; 19.90% of subjects) isolates contained non-vaccine type serotypes, while n=1 of the isolates (0.49% of subjects) were both optochin resistant and untypeable. Serotypes 28F, 6A, 11A, 3 and 7C were prevalent in both vaccinated and unvaccinated children, whereas serotypes 23A, 17F, 35F, 48, 13 and 35B, and 23B, 20, 19B, 21, untypeable, 15B and 39 were found among unvaccinated and vaccinated cohorts, respectively. Thirty nine (92.86%) of pneumococci isolates were susceptible to erythromycin, 39 (92.86%) were susceptible to vancomycin, 8 (19.86%) were susceptible to oxacillin; 40 (95.24%) were susceptible to clindamycin, 24 (57.86%) were susceptible to ceftriaxone while 18 (42.86%) were non-susceptible. The risk of nasopharyngeal carriage decreased insignificantly when the subject was female (odds ratio [OR]: 0.766, 95% CI: 0.388, 1.511, p-value=0.442). Children between the age of 25-36 months (OR: 1.147 (95% I: 483, 2.722) and 37-48 months (OR: 1, 95% CI: 0.286, 3.501) had an insignificant elevated risk of nasopharyngeal carriage of the bacteria. Children whose mothers were non-cigarrate smokers exhibited low odds of carriage (OR: 0.764 (95% CI: 0.077, 7.537; p=0.818). Serotype replacement, resistance to penicillins and exposure to smoke were correlated with incresaed risk of nasopharyngeal carriage. Continuous and broader epidemiological surveys should be carried out in the entire country to accurately determine the degree of serotype replacement and; people should be sensitised on judicious use and/or consumption of antibiotics. Optochin test should be introduced as a routine assay in diagnosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae in hospitals.
influence of school based sexual risk avoidance education on sexual behavior among adolescent girls in homabay
(2020-09) OWAKA ISAAC OGWENO
Adolescent sexual and reproductive health is a priority in the global agenda because of its associated negative reproductive health outcomes. It is estimated that Homabay County contributes 11.5% of adolescents aged 10-19 years living with HIV in Kenya. The fertility rate among girls aged 15-19 is also high in Homabay with a reported teenage pregnancy rate of 33% and the age-specific fertility rate of 178 births per 1000 girls. This study aimed to determine the influence of school based sexual risk avoidance education on sexual behavior in Homabay County. Using a cluster randomized control trial study design 28 schools were randomly selected from a sampling frame of 94 schools and randomly allocated to intervention and control arm of the study at a ratio of 1:1 for a period of 12 months. Using a repeat cross-sectional study design a total of 491 and 489 participants were proportionately and randomly selected from a sampling frame of 2085 participated in the baseline and evaluation surveys respectively. The data collection tools were a self-administered questionnaire, a focused group discussion guide, and key informant interview guide. For intervention, school-based sexual risk avoidance manual, self-assessment evaluation checklist, and videos were used. Quantitative data was managed in SPSS while qualitative was analyzed by thematic content analysis. Descriptive statistics was used to determine the prevalence of high-risk sexual behavior, teenage pregnancy, level knowledge, perception of risk and sexual self-efficacy. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine factors associated with sexual behavior and effect of intervention. The study found overall high-risk sexual behavior, sexual activity, early sexual debut, inconsistent utilization of condom and multiple sexual to be 62.3%,61.7%,37.5%, 33%, and 23.1% respectively among girls. Proportion of participants with a good level of knowledge on risky sexual behavior, pregnancy and HIV/AIDS were found to be 39.4%,40.4%, and 82.9% respectively while those with high perceptions of risk on pregnancy and HIV/AIDS were found to be 54.3% and 41.9% respectively and 60% had high self-sexual efficacy. Multiple sexual partner was associated with current guardians (OR 0.327, CI 0.126-0.844, P 0.021) and perception of risk on pregnancy (OR 0.327, CI 0.115-0.929, P 0.036)while inconsistent utilization of condom was associated with current guardian (OR 0.477, CI 0.242-0.940, P 0.033), position of birth (OR 0.355 CI 0.157-0.805, P 0.013) and sexual self-efficacy (OR 0.389, CI 0.188-0.806, P 0.011).Early sexual debut was associated with knowledge on pregnancy (OR 0.353, CI0.169-0.737, P 0.006) and perception of risk on pregnancy (OR 0.316, CI 0.147-0.676, P 0.003). School-based sexual risk avoidance education significantly increased knowledge on risky sexual behavior (OR 1.525, CI 1.059-2.195, P 0.023) and strength of sexual self-efficacy (OR 1.506, CI 1.021-2.221, P 0.039). The SRAE has a protective effect on knowledge on risky sexual behavior and sexual self-efficacy which directly influences sexual behavior. Therefore, Ministry of education and the stakeholders should upscal

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