Theses and Dissertations

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FACTORS INFLUENCING ENROLMENT AND RETENTION OF STUDENTS IN PHYSICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IMENTI SOUTH SUB-COUNTY KENYA
(2016) KAIRO NKIROTE CATHERINE
Despite the place of physics in science, technology and national development, the number of students taking physics as their choice in secondary schools is declining. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors influencing enrolment and retention of students in physics classes in secondary schools in Imenti South Sub-County of Meru County. The study was based on achievement motivation theory. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The target population was 14,097 subjects comprising of 13,943 students and 154 physics teachers in secondary schools in Imenti South Sub-County. Simple random sampling technique was adopted to select students and physics teachers from the population in Imenti south Sub-county. The sample size was 364 respondents comprising of 356 students and 8 physics teachers. Data was collected by use of three questionnaires, for the form two students, form three students and the other for the physics teachers. Piloting was carried out in two secondary schools in the neighbouring Imenti North Sub-county where 42 students and 4 physics teachers participated. Spearman Brown formulae was used to estimate the reliability co-efficient of the instruments. The reliability coefficient of 0.851 and 0.957 for students and teachers questionnaire respectively was obtained. The research instruments were validated with the help of supervisors. The data collected was cleaned, coded and entered into the computer for analysis. Statistical Package for Social Science version18 was used for data analysis. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and the findings presented using tables, graphs and charts. The study established factors influencing enrolment and retention in physics include; lack of adequate teaching and learning apparatus, poor performance in physics, teaching methods used in practical lessons, playing with electrical gadget and making models during early childhood, naming constants and principles after male scientists. The research findings will provide important information to policy makers and other stake holders in the Ministry of Education on the influence of available teaching and learning physics resources in schools in regard to enrolment and choice of physics. The study will provide information to physics teachers on the influence of the methodologies used in teaching physics on selection of physics by the students. This may help physics teachers to know which intervention measures to take while teaching in order to improve student’s enrolment in physics. The study is of significance to the students because it enlightens them on the importance and the benefits of studying physics. The study also will sensitize the parents on the importance of physics and their role in exposing children to experiences that demonstrate physics knowledge during childhood. This will help in improving enrolment and retention of students in physics in secondary schools.
MODELING THE EFFECTS OF INTERFERENCE IN FERTILITY RATE: A CASE STUDY OF RWANDA, INDONESIA AND KENYA
(2016) ODERO EVERLYNE AKOTH
Many studies have been done on fertility for many years. However, very little has been documented in the existing literature concerning modeling of fertility in the presence of interference, yet interference to fertility is a common phenomenon. In this study fertility data sets for Rwanda, Indonesia and Kenya were modeled before and after interference. The parameters of the model were estimated ted by the maximum likelihood estimation method. The model life table approach was used to determine the Net Fertility Value, Fo. A relationship between fertility rate in the presence of interference and population growth was also determined Using Akaiko's Information Criteria (AIC) population growth was also determined. Using Akaike's Information Criteria, (AIC), it was established that amongst the distributions fitted; Gamma, Weibull and Lognormal, was established that amongst the distributions fitted: Gamma. Weibull and Lognormal Gamma gave the best fit for the fertility rate data, for all the countries studied, and interference simply shifts the Gamma distribution parameters. The result of this study would help the Governments to understand fully the effect of interference on fertility rate and plan for it. Demographers would also benefit from this study since it can be used to project population growth after an interference.
SEROPROFILE, GENETIC DIVERSITY AND DRUG RESISTANCE OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS AMONG INFECTED INDIVIDUAL ATTAENDING MAMA LUCY KIBAKI
(2016) SEPHA NYATICHI MABEYA
Human immune deficiency virus (HIV) and Hepatitis B virus(HBV) coinfection is highly prevalent among high risk populations including pregnant women and infants. This poses a global public health challenge in laboratory diagnosis and is a major consideration for anti-HIV treatment. These viruses share common modes of transmission that is; through blood and body fluids. Further, there is little information on sero-profiles and circulating HBV genotypes in Kenya. This study aimed at determining seroprofiles, genetic diversity and drug resistance of HBV among HIV infected individuals attending comprehensive care clinic of Mama Lucy Kibaki Hospital Nairobi, Kenya. Ethical approval was sought from Kenyatta university ethics review committee and a cross-sectional study was conducted whereby the participants/guardians who gave consent/assent were included into the study. Their demographic data was collected using a questionnaire and 5ml of blood was collected from each participant using systematic sampling technique. The HBV seroprofiles were determined using the HBV-5 panel rapid diagnostic cassette according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Healthaw Medical limited, Hangzhou, China) . Viral DNA was extracted using Qiagen® Miniviral DNA isolation kit and the HBV-pol gene amplified by nested PCR. The amplified products were sequenced using the Big Dye® sequence terminator kit (Applied Biosystem®) on an automated ABI 310 sequencer (Applied Biosystem, Foster City CA). The generated sequences of HBV were analysed for drug resistance and genetic diversity determined using Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA5). Four hundred participants were recruited and 293 were females, 107 were males with their age ranging between 4 months and 73 years. Of the 400 sera; (111) 27.8% were HBV immunized, 19 (4.8%) were recovery cases, 12 (3%) had acute disease, 10 (2.5%) were chronic, 9 (2.3%) had occult HBV and 7 (1.8%) asymptomatic. The prevalence of HBV/HIV was found to be 7.25% based on the presence of surface antigen. After the confirmation of HBV DNA by gel electrophoresis, 13 samples were successfully amplified, purified and sequenced. All the 13 sequences were confirmed as HBV genotype A. Nucleotide drug resistance mutations were found in six (6) participants’ samples. These were rtV173L, rtL180M, rtM204V which are major mutations associated with lamivudine, telbivudine and emtricitabine resistance. This study indicates that the utility of HBV seromarkers and infection staging are important in disease diagnosis. The findings confirm that, HBV genotype A remains the most predominant genotype circulating in Nairobi.This study proposes a need for a continuous surveillance of HBV genotype trends and evolution of drug resistance because the current findings have major implications on treatment of HBV in Kenya
PREVALENCE OF FETAL HEMOGLOBIN AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES TO Plasmodium Falciparum ANTIGENS IN SICKLE CELL DISEASE PATIENTS IN WESTERN KENYA
(2016-06) BRENDA AKINYI WEBALA
Malaria is a major public health problem worldwide with increasing cases and deaths in sub-Saharan Africa. Sickle cell disease conditions relate geographically with malaria endemic areas. Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) moderates the clinical severity of sickle cell disease (SCD) and also provides protection against malaria. Consequently, it provides survival advantage but the data is limited. Designing a study linking HbF with protection against malaria infection has been a challenge due to potential confounders on the exposure outcome. This study therefore investigated the prevalence and levels of HbF and the IgG responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens in 100 SCD patients aged 5-30 years living in a malariaendemic area in Western Kenya. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and levels of HbF and the IgG responses to a panel of eleven recombinant P. falciparum antigens in SCD patients. The levels of HbF and the IgG responses to each of the 11 antigens were determined using the alkali denaturation (Betke) method and the cytometric bead assay in a Luminexsuspension array technology respectively. The study reports a prevalence of up to 77 % of the SCD patients with high fetal hemoglobin (>10%) with a mean and range of 19.09% (1.44-56.25%) respectively. Generally the levels of HbF increased with age (r = 0.17, P < 0.05) indicating that fetal hemoglobin provides survival advantage in SCD, in males there was an increase in HbF with age (r=0.31; P<0.05) while in females it was not significant (r = 0.02; P>0.05). The IgG responses to the multiple P. falciparum antigens were differently expressed in the SCD patients, preerythrocytic antigens showed a statistical difference when the mean IgG levels were compared using unpaired T test between the seropositive SCD patients and nonSCD individuals with the later having high IgG levels (P<0.05). In contrast LSANRC had high IgG levels in SCD patients (P<0.05). The IgG responses to blood stage antigens on the other hand were not statistically different between the SCD patients and non- SCD individuals (P>0.05). The IgG responses to MSP-1-42-FVO were high both in the seropositive SCD and non-SCD individuals. However, when compared with the non-SCD individuals using unpaired T-test, the non- SCD individuals had significantly high levels of IgG responses to both the preerythrocytic and the blood stage antigens than the SCD patients (P<0.05). Using Spearmans’ rank correlation analysis, HbF positively correlated with the IgG responses to LSA-NRC (r= 0.26; P<0.05), other antigens showed no correlation. This implies that HbF can provide protection against malaria in SCD patients living in malaria endemic areas and thus increase their life expectancy. The findings also reinforce the previous findings that antibody cooperates with fetal hemoglobin to provide protection against malaria. Nonetheless, further rigorous study design approach should be used for investigations on the role of HbF on pathogenesis and chemotherapy of malaria in SCD patients.
Extraction and Characterization of Gelatin from Lates niloticus Scales and Potential Industrial Applications
(2016-07-31) CHEBON SAMMY KIPLAGAT
This study sought to extract and characterize gelatin from Lates niloticus (Nile perch) scales, then blend it with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Hydrolysis of the scales was done using a crude alkaline protease harvested from a bacterium, Bacillus cereus strain wwcp 1, obtained from Lake Bogoria and the resulting solution lyophilized to obtain gelatin powder. The yield was calculated based on the dry weight of the scales and was shown to be 16.3%. The sample was characterized using infrared spectroscopy and showed peaks at 3442 cm-1, 1653 cm-1 and ~ 1590 cm-1 corresponding to Amide A, Amide I and Amide II bands respectively. Amino acid analysis of the sample was done using an Agilent 1260 HPLC. Glycine was the most abundant amino acid (21.7%), followed by proline (14.6%) and alanine (11.8%). Isoleucine, Histidine and Tyrosine were the least abundant (1.8, 1.4 and 0.9% respectively). Polyvinyl alcohol-gelatin blend films of various compositions ranging from 10% to 90% PVA were prepared by solution casting method, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermo-gravimetric Analysis (TGA) tests showed the films had glass transition, melting and thermal decomposition onset temperatures intermediate between those of the respective individual polymers ( PVA and gelatin). The thermal stability of the films reduced with the increase in the amount of the less thermally stable constituent. Lastly, potential applications of the prepared blend films were investigated. Batch experiments to assess the potential of the polymer blend films as adsorbent material were done using Methylene Blue dye. The films were found to adsorb up to 64% of the dye. The percent dye removal varied with initial concentration of the dye and contact time
FISH PROTEIN HYDROLYSATE FROM DAGAA (Rastrineobola argentea) AS NUTRITIONAL COMPONENT IN MICROBIAL CULTURE MEDIA
(2016-09) Pere Katherine
Dagaa is a small pelagic fish found in Lake Victoria. It is mainly used as a nutrient source in the animal feed industry as well as for human consumption among the poor and the middle class. Fish protein hydrolysate as a source of nutrient in culture media has been explored in several fish species such as Silver Carp, Yellow Tuna, Yellow Stripe Trevally, Herring and Mackerel. Dagaa could also be an excellent candidate for culture media since it is rich in proteins, lipids and minerals. This would also add value to the underutilized fish species and minimize post-harvest losses of up to 50% during rainy seasons. In the current study, Dagaa as a source of nitrogen in culture media was explored by first preparing the Dagaa Protein Hydrolysate (DPH) using Alcalase enzyme. Proximate analysis for protein, lipid, moisture /dry weight and ash contents of DPH was performed and compared with that of Dagaa, Dagaa Fish Hydrolysate (DFH), Standard media Luria Bertani (LB) and Sabouraud’s Dextrose Broth (SDB). Mineral analysis was also performed on all these samples. The potential of DPH as a nitrogen source in microbial growth media was investigated using; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis and Rhodobacter capsulatus for bacterial growth studies while Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana were used for fungal growth. Potential of DPH to sustain production of commercial valued enzyme amylase was also investigated with R. capsulatus and B. subtilis in DPH-Starch media. This was done using Dinitrosalicylic (DNS) acid assay. M. anisopliae was analyzed for sporulation (conidia production) rate in DPH-Dextrose media. Proximate and mineral analysis indicated that there was significant difference (p<0.05) in the nutritional and mineral profiles of DPH and the two standard media (LB and SD). The protein content of DPH was higher than that of LB and SDB while the mineral content of DPH was lower than that of LB but slightly higher than that of SDB. LB had more Sodium content than DPH. Investigation of the potential of DPH as a nitrogen source in media indicated that in all microorganisms used in this study, there was no significant difference (p˃0.05) in DPH-FM and DPH-Dextrose as compared to standard media in the growth of microorganisms. The potential for DPH-Starch to sustain production of commercial valued amylase indicated that there was significant difference (p<0.05) in the sustenance of amylase production in formulated DPH-Starch and standard media by R. capsulatus and B. subtilis. DPHStarch media gave better production of amylase enzyme in both microbes than the standard media. There was no significant difference (p˃0.05) in the sporulation rates of M. anisopliae in DPH-Dextrose and the standard media. Hence DPH formulated media can be substituted as a potential culture media for microbial growth. The cost of formulation is low and provides an alternative means of value addition to Dagaa.
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAD TEACHERS’ LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PUPILS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN MALINDI SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(2016-11) FREDER MWALUNGO KATUNDA
This study aimed at investigating the relationship between head teachers’ leadership styles on pupils’ academic performance in public primary schools in Malindi Sub County, Kenya. More often than not, head teachers find themselves on the receiving end of poor performance in public primary schools. Most parents tend to attribute poor performance of their children to head teacher’s leadership styles. The objectives of the study were to: find out the relationship between democratic leadership style and pupils’ academic performance; determine relationship between the autocratic leadership style and pupils’ academic performance; find out the relationship between the transformative leadership styles and pupils’ academic performance; and determine the leadership the relationship between the transactional leadership styles and pupils’ academic performance. This study was based on Fiedler’s contingency theory and rationale theory of performance. quantitative methods were used in this study. The study adopted the correlational research design that sought to measure the relationship between the variables. The study targeted a population of 750 teachers and head teachers from 30 public primary schools in Malindi Sub County. The sample was 200 participants consisting of 192 teachers and 8 head teachers. The sample was obtained through stratified sampling to establish the number of head teachers and teachers to include in the study sample. Simple random sampling was used to select 8 head teachers from 30 schools and 192 teachers from 720 teachers. Questionnaires were used; one for teachers and another for head teachers to collect data. Pilot study was carried out in two neighbouring schools which were not included in the study. The validity of the instruments was ascertained by the supervisor and two other lecturers who gave verdict on their appropriateness. The reliability was verified by using the test retest method whereby Pearson Product Moment correlation was 0.75. To cover ethical issues, clearance was done with Mount Kenya University and a permit was obtained from NACOSTI and official letters from the County Director of Education and the District Education Officer. The participants signed informed consent forms and were assured of their privacy and confidentiality. The data was analyzed quantitatively using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings established that independent variables had positive and significant relationship with pupils’ academic performance since the estimated Pearson Linear correlation coefficient statistic was significant at the 99% level for all the variables (Sig.<.01, r>.9). All the null hypotheses filed to be accepted. The study concludes that from the three tests on a hypothesis that is correlation, regression and coefficient, all indicates rejection of the null hypothesis paving a way for alternative hypothesis. The study recommends that head teachers ought to be given refresher courses on appropriate leadership styles to be applied in their institutions. The ministry of education should allow teachers to teach in one school for at most 10 years so as to gain experience before transferring to another school. Quality assurance officers needed to be visiting schools regularly to establish level of performance and offer necessary intervention where things are not in order. The study findings are expected to provide useful information to head teachers in helping them to re-examine and appraise their own leadership styles and hence make adjustment where necessary.
EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION IN ENHANCING STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTS, SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY AND MOTIVATION TOWARDS LEARNING OF CHEMISTRY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MAARA SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(2016-11) ROSE GATUNE MUGWIRIA
Students perform poorly in Kenya Certificates of Secondary Education Chemistry examinations in Kenya. Chemistry is important for understanding composition, properties and behavior changes of matter that form the environment. The teaching of Chemistry aims at developing scientific attitudes, concept, principles and skills in learners. Differentiating instruction means tailoring instruction to meet individual needs of learners. Differentiating instruction consists of efforts of teachers to respond to the variance among learners in the classroom. This study investigated the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in enhancing students‟ academic achievements, self-concept of ability and motivation towards learning of chemistry. The study was guided by Howard Gadner Theory of multiple Intelligence. Quasi experimental research design was employed and in particular Solomon‟s four group design was used. The research was carried out in Four Day co-educational secondary schools in Maara sub-county, Kenya. The target population was 12,187 chemistry students. The accessible population was 1,242 form two chemistry students in Day co educational secondary schools. A purposive sampling technique was used to draw the participating schools. Simple random sampling was used to select and to assign participating schools in Experimental and Control groups. The sample size was 165 form two chemistry students. The research instruments used were Chemistry Achievement Test, Students‟ Self Concept of Ability Questionnaire and Students‟ Motivation Questionnaire. The instruments were piloted to determine their reliability, while validity of the instrument was ascertained by experts‟ opinions from Department of Education and Resource Development of Chuka University. Reliability coefficient for CAT, SSCAQ and SMQ was 0.74, 0.80 and 0.77 respectively. The experimental groups (E1 and E2) were taught using differentiated instruction teaching approach while the control groups (C1 and C2) were taught through conventional teaching approach. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 was used for data analysis. The raw data obtained was analyzed using descriptive statistics (Mean, Standard deviation, percentages) and inferential statistics (One-way ANOVA, ANCOVA and t-test). The level of significance for acceptance or rejection of null hypotheses was at α = 0.05. The findings of the study indicated that differentiated instruction significantly improved the students‟ achievement, self concept of ability and motivation towards learning chemistry. It was also found out that when students were taught using differentiated instruction, gender did not affect their achievement in chemistry. The findings are expected to form a frame of reference for further research on innovative teaching strategies in chemistry education as well as in science education in general.
CHILD EXPOSURE TO LEAD IN THE VICINITIES OF INFORMAL USED LEAD-ACID BATTERY RECYCLING OPERATIONS IN SLUMS, KENYA
(2016-11) MAUREEN AUMA ONDAYO
Leadexposure frominformal used lead-acidbattery (ULAB) recyclingoperations is a seriousenvironmental healthconcern. Researchshows that youngchildrenliving inthe vicinitiesoftheseoperationshaveelevatedbloodleadlevelsandfatalitieshavealsobeen reported. FromJanuary2015 toAugust 2015, thestudy investigatedchildexposure to lead inthevicinitiesof informalULABrecyclingoperations inNairobi slums,Kenya. This was in consideration of activity patterns of children under seven years that influencedexposurelevelsthroughhousedustandsoil.Topsoil (N=232)andfloordust (N=322)sampleswerecollectedfromdwellingunits(N=120)andpreparatoryschools (N:44)andanalyzedusing inductivelycoupledplasma-optical emissionspectrometer (ICP-OES) at theMines aridGeological Department Laboratory in theMinistryof Mining,Nairobi.Fromthe lead levels insoil andhousedustobtained,childblood lead levelswere subsequently predictedusing the IntegratedExposureUptakeBiokinetic Model forLead inChildren(IEUBK),Windowsversion.Results indicatedhigh indoor andoutdoor lead contamination instudied areas. Lead loadings inall the floor dust samples (100%) fromDandota, Kariobangi andMukuruslums exceeded theUSEPA guidancevaluefor leadonfloorswitharangeof65.2-58,l94ug/ft2.Control floordust samples recorded lower lead loadingsas compared to thevalues recorded inDandora, Kariobangi andMukuruslums. 70.7%ofthesoil samplescollectedfromwastedumps, industrial sites, residential areas, playgrounds and preparatory schools in Dandora, Kariobangi andMukururecorded leadconcentrations that exceeded the respectiveUS EPAguidancevalues for lead insoils. Leadconcentration inall (100%of) thecontrol soil sampleswerebelowtherespectiveUSEPAguidancevalues. Fromthe IEUBKwin predictions,nearly99.9%ofchildren<7yearsoldlivingnear informalULABrecycling operations inDandora, Kariobangi andMukuru slums, were at riskof being lead poisonedwithpredictedbloodleadlevelsabovetheCDCreferencevalueforbloodlead. 99.9%ofexposedchildrenlivinginDandora,KariobangiandMukumslumsarelikelyto havebloodlead levelsabove20kg/dL, 19kg/dLand34kg/dLrespectively.Thestudy establishedthatDandora,Kariobangi andMukuruslums facevastenvironmentalhealth challenges,withmanychildrenat riskofleadpoisoningduetotherapidunprecedented growthof informalULABrecycling. Thesoil andhousedust results demonstrate the need for coordinatedefforts towards decreasing leademissions frominformal battery recycling inNairobi slumsand to remediateexisting soilsparticularlyaroundbattery workplaces and dumpsites. Childblood lead levels should be clinically tested and appropriateinterventionmeasurestaken.
USE OF FISH BIOMARKERS TO ASSESS MICRO- POLLUTANT EXPOSURE AND EFFECTS IN LAKE KANYABOLI, KENYA
(2016-11) CORNEL AKWIR OMONDI
A lot of research in ecotoxicology is currently focused on identifying and developing suitable biomarkers for use in assessing environmental pollution. This study, set out to evaluate the use of a suite of biomarkers in Clarias gariepinus in assessing micropollutant exposure and effects in Lake Kanyaboli from November 2013 to April 2014. Fish were collected with the aid of a gill net of mesh size 4” and 5” whereas bottom sediment was collected by ErkMan crab sampler. The concentrations of Cadmium, Chromium, Zinc, Copper, and Lead in lake sediment and in the liver of Clarias gariepinus were determined using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). A necropsy-based health assessment index (HAI), the condition factor, hepatosomatic index (HSI), and splenosomatic index (SSI) were measured in fish from all the sampling stations. Fish were semi-quantitatively sampled from which an organ index was calculated to examine the micro- pollutant exposure and effects in fish from all the study stations. Metals concentrations were significantly (Fα, v1, v2 = 7.16; p < 0.05) higher in station 2 than at the other stations. The mean heavy metal concentration in Clarias gariepinus liver were Cd (nd-0.22±0.01), Cr (0.37 ± 0.01 - 1.67 ± 0.03), Zn (7.12 ± 0.03 - 13.40 ± 0.32), Cu (2.12 ± 0.12 - 4.16 ± 0.12) and Pb (1.63 ± 0.33 - 14.40 ± 0.58). Zn exhibited a significance difference between the stations (Fα, v1, v2 = 7.79; p < 0.05). Redundancy ordination analysis (RDA) revealed positive linear relation between heavy metals in sediments and fish liver except for Zinc concentration in sediments and fish liver which showed a negative relationship. The mean of the biomarkers were HAI (20.61 ± 1.01 - 47.43 ± 1.12), Condition factor (0.60 ± 0.03 - 0.91 ± 0.29), HSI (0.53 ± 0.03 - 0.67 ± 0.03), SSI (0.08 ± 0.00 - 0.12 ± 0.01) and Semi-quantitative histological assessment index (8.3 ± 0.41 - 17.63 ± 0.36). The multivariate analysis of the histology – based fish health assessment index (HBFHAI) showed that these biomarkers are being influenced by the concentration of heavy metals in sediments as well as fish liver and therefore qualified as biomarkers for assessing pollutant exposure and effects. It is concluded that histology-based fish health assessment index biomarkers can be used to assess the health of aquatic organisms and ecological health of Lake Kanyaboli and other aquatic habitats within the Lake Victoria Basin. However, a more comprehensive chemical analysis of water and sediments samples including the measurements of endocrine disrupting chemicals is recommended for future studies to further investigate possible causative agents regarding liver alterations identified.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADHERENCE TO ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY IN EMBU TEACHING AND REFERRAL HOSPITAL, EMBU COUNTY, KENYA
(2017-03) EVANGELINE KANANU NJUE MUGOH
Adherence to antiretroviral therapy is a major predictor of the survival of individuals living with HIV/AIDS. Appropriate use of antiretrovirals (ARV’s) has improved the health of many human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive individuals. The effectiveness of HIV treatment depends on sustenance of high levels of adherence to ARV; however, ARV regimens are often complicated and can be affected by varying dosing schedules, failing to have proper dietary requirements and patients developing adverse effects. The main objective of this study was to determine factors influencing adherence to Anti-retroviral drugs among HIV and AIDS patients 18 years and above in Embu Teaching and Referral Hospital comprehensive care clinic. A cross sectional study was carried out at EmbuTeaching and Referral Hospital in EmbuCounty, Kenya. Stratified random sampling was used to obtain relative proportion of male and female adult respondents in the sample population. Three hundred and thirty one HIV positive patients were chosen from a total of 1694 patients who were active in ART for more than one year. A semi-structured interview schedules was used to obtain demographic information and patients view on various dimension or ART services at the facility. The study revealed thatalmost half (48.2%) of the respondents had optimal adherence to ART treatment while 51.8% had sub-optimal adherence to ART treatment. Over a third (34.9%) of the patients indicated that travelling was the main cause of hindrance to optimal adherence to treatment. Other reasons included forgetfulness 23.5%, tiredness of taking drugs all the time 20.8% and side effects 20.8%. Patients aged below 25 years were more likely to have optimal ART adherence as compared to respondents aged 56 years and above (ᵡ 2 =10.745, df=4, pvalue = .030). Monogamously married and polygamous married patients more likely to have optimal adherence as compared to widowed or widower respondents (ᵡ 2 =17.944, df=4, p-value = .001). Majority (88.0%) of the respondents had disclosed their HIV status to other people of whom 46.9% had disclosed to their spouse/sexual partner and 49.7% of them had been accorded moral support. There was significant association between adherence to ART and the type of drug respondent was using with AZT, ddl, NFV having the highest proportion of sub-optimal adherence to treatment while respondents on D4T, 3TC, NVP had the lowest proportion of suboptimal adherence to treatment. Patients who had sub-optimal ART adherence significantly had longer waiting time and deemed costs of co-infection treatment to be higher as compared to respondents who had optimal ART adherence. Convenience of the facilities for people with chronic ailments and waiting time at the facilities were reported to be lower. The study concludes that majoritypatients had sub-optimal adherence to ART treatment. Adherence was significantly influenced by age; marital status; engagement in income generating activity;type of drug takenand costof coinfection treatment;health facility accessibility and perceived waiting time.The study recommends that HIV patients should be sensitized on importance of carrying ART drugs when travelling and the use of treatment assistants to ensure optimal adherence thus enabling them fully realize its life extending benefits as it has been shown that there is significant non-adherence among HIV positive patients on ART in the County.
SCREENING, ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBONOCLASTIC BACTERIA FROM OIL CONTAMINATED SOILS
(2017-05) Mwaura N. Agnes
Petroleum and its products continue to serve as a principle source of energy for industries and daily life. However, their release into the environment is a worldwide concern since some products are acutely toxic or possess mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic properties. Several oil disposal methods have been applied over time with bioremediation emerging as the most promising technology. It takes advantage of the versatility of soil microbes to degrade hydrocarbon contaminants. Unlike conventional disposal methods, bioremediation is an environmentally friendly and cost effective method that simulates natural processes for complete degradation of hydrocarbons into innocuous compounds. This study focused on isolation, morphological and biochemical characterization as well as molecular identification of bacteria possessing hydrocarbon-degrading properties. The study also aimed at optimizing appropriate culture conditions for the isolates as well as screening for alkane hydroxylase enzyme. Isolation of hydrocarbon degrading microbes from soils polluted with used motor oil around Ngara, Nairobi-Kenya was carried out using Bushnell Haas media supplemented with used engine oil. The isolates were screened for ability to utilize heating oil, hexane, octane, toluene and diesel oil hydrocarbons. Characterization of the isolates was carried out by performing Gram’s iodine and potassium hydroxide as well as starch, catalase and carbohydrate fermentation tests. The isolates were also identified through PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S rDNA gene and comparison of obtained sequences with those retrieved from Genbank database. Optimization of culture conditions of three efficient degraders was performed using diesel oil and cellular growth monitored through biomass determination. Hydrocarbon analysis was performed using GC-MS following culturing in diesel oil. Alkane hydroxylase (alkB) gene was amplified using alk-3F and alk-3R primer pair. Among 21 microbes isolated, nine were selected based on their ability to utilize the hydrocarbons and characterized. The isolates were observed to mineralize heating oil, hexane, octane and toluene as well as diesel oil. PCR amplification of 16S rDNA gene revealed that the nine isolates belong to six different genera; Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Salmonella and Ochrobactrum. Based on their ability to degrade the hydrocarbons, three isolates were selected and their growth conditions optimized. Optimum degradation of diesel oil was recorded at <1 % substrate concentration, pH 7, temperature of 37 0C and using yeast extract as a nitrogen source. GC-MS analysis of diesel oil degradation demonstrated that the isolates were capable of readily degrading linear, branched, cyclic and isoprenoid alkanes as well as aromatic hydrocarbons with fatty acids, aldehydes and alcohols produced as intermediate metabolites. Isolate 1C was identified as the most efficient hydrocarbon degrader based on utilization of the different hydrocarbons tested. Its alkane hydroxylase gene was successfully amplified indicating the isolate’s potential catabolic capability in degrading alkanes. Overall, the characterized bacterial isolates may constitute potential candidates for biotechnological application in environmental cleanup of petroleum contaminants
EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL TOOL ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE IN KENYA COMMERCIAL BANK, NAIROBI COUNTY
(2017-06) LEAH NJERI NYAMU
Performance appraisals improve the work performance of employees by helping them realize their full potentials in carrying out their firm's mission and also, to provide information to employees and managers for use in making work-related decisions. They provide feedback to employees; determine training and development needs, numbers to be promoted as well as the levels of motivation. Performance appraisals, however, are beset with difficulties as a result of their complex nature. The general objective of the study therefore, was to evaluate the performance appraisal tool on employees‟ performance in Kenya Commercial Bank. The research design used in the study was descriptive research design because it was appropriate for the achievement of the research objectives. The population for the study was 355 and a sample size of 107 was selected using cluster sampling method to group the target population according job titles. The study applied purposive sampling to select Nairobi County because of easy of accessibility. Questionnaires were used as instruments for the study and 107 questionnaires were distributed to the members of staff and subordinate as the respondents. The data was analyzed using descriptive analysis. Organized data was interpreted on account of concurrence and standard deviation to objectives using a computer package SPSS version 21. The researcher in addition used correlation analysis and a multiple regression analysis to determine the relationship between dependent and independent variables and their level of significance. The research was based on Attribution Theory, Implicit Theory, Equity Theory and Expectancy Theory. The information obtained from this study provided commercial bank Human Resource Managers and decision makers with better insights into employee performance appraisal programs that could be used to improve employee performance.
PARENT-RELATED DETERMINANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON GIRLS RETENTION IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS
(2017-06) KADIMA ARTHUR WANG’ANYA
Education is an important life process that plays a vital role in forming the foundation for girls’. Female education especially in secondary level has been realized as a critical pathway in promoting social, political and economic benefits for the developing countries. In spite of the government’s progress in narrowing the gender gap in education at secondary level, girls’ low retention in secondary school remains unresolved in some parts of the country. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the parentrelated determinants and their effects in girls retention in public secondary school in Kaloleni Sub-County. The objectives of the study were to; determine the effects of parental level of education on girls’ retention of girls in schools, determine parental involvement in girls’ academics in schools, to find out if parents partnering with the schools affect the retention of girls in secondary education. The study based on the Classical Liberal Theory of equal opportunity and Social Darwinism which asserts that each person is born with a given amount of capacity (Orodho 2003). The main areas of literature review were; parental level of education, parental involvement, partnering with parents in school. The study adopted a descriptive survey design to collect information. The selected area for the study was Kaloleni Sub-County in Kilifi County. The target population was 1690 where the sample population of the study was 351; 5 principals, 15 class teachers, 330 students and 1 SQASO. The study utilized questionnaires and interview schedule for data collection. Descriptive statistics such as percentages and frequency distribution were used to analyze the data. The study established that majority of the students 128 (40.9% ) had their fathers and 114 (36.4%) had mothers who had only attained primary level of education which implied that majority of the girls had no role models and lacked the motivation to continue with their studies which had resulted to low retention of girls. Majority of the principals 3 (60%,) class teachers 8 (53.3%) and 198 (63.26%) of the students showed that majority of parents were not involved in the learning process causing most of the girls from poor economic backgrounds to stay away from school and others dropping out leading to low retention of girls. The study further revealed from the 4 (90%) principals, that majority of the parents to a small extent partnered with the schools on going activities which implied that most parents were not concerned with their daughters’ education making most of the girls to have low retention in secondary schools. The study recommended parental partnership to be embedded in teaching and learning policies so that girl-child problems and challenges are addressed. The study further recommended for more research to be done on a large area or the whole country as it had been done in a Sub-County.
ASSESSMENT OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN KENYA TO FORECAST LOCAL PRODUCTION SUFFICIENCY
(2017-10) SARAH KADESA VUGIGI
The World Health Organization’s global strategy on public health aims to support Member States to improve access to essential medicines. The desire of Kenya Government to implement this is expressed by formulation of Kenya National Pharmaceutical Policy (2010) which encourages local production of essential medicines for self-sufficiency. The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya is engaged in production of various types of dosage forms but its capacity and capability to produce essential medicines for Kenyans have not been determined. The aim of this study was to assess the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya to forecast local production sufficiency. This was attained by evaluating the manufacturing capability, production capacities and compliance with international marketing authorization standard of the Kenyan pharmaceutical industry. The 24 licensed manufacturers of medicines for human use were assessed. Data was collected on the current drug situation in Kenya by scanning Pharmacy and Poisons Board database to determine range of products that are registered in Kenya. Local pharmaceutical manufacturer’s product lists, Kenya Essential Medicines list and pharmaceutical tender lists of three major procurers in Kenya (Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies) were examined to establish the proportion of products which was manufactured locally. Prices competitiveness and market share of local products were evaluated and subsequently, pharmaceutical equivalents of 150 locally manufactured essential medicines were determined. Data on production capacity for 5 years (2010-2014) and compliance of facilities with good manufacturing practices standard and other prerequisites of marketing authorization was obtained using a structured questionnaire. Results showed that solid dosage forms were majority (54.9 %) of local products and sterile preparations were minority (2.7 %). Locally manufactured products accounted for 14.5 % of registered and 21.5 % of retained products. Local firms manufactured 38.4 % of products listed as essential medicines and 55.6 %, 24.5 % and 21.8 %, respectively, of pharmaceutical products procured by Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies. The overall percentage of local pharmaceutical equivalents was 32.5 % for registered products. There was no variation between mean prices of local and imported pharmaceutical equivalents. Scatter diagrams demonstrated that imported pharmaceutical products comprised both low and highly priced brands. The overall utilized production capacity (two shifts) was 21.5 %; tablets (24.1 %), capsules (12.8 %), liquids (25.3 %), dry syrups (21.8 %), external preparations (21.3 %) and oral rehydration salts (23.6 %). This study projected the year for self-sufficiency in non-sterile medicines produced in the local industry as 2043. Good manufacturing practices standard was satisfactory at 11 facilities while the rest were striving to achieve compliance. Research and development of new products was limited in most facilities with 1 % of the workforce deployed in this department. It is concluded from this study that Kenya depends heavily on imported drugs for her essential medicines needs. Majority of local products were less competitive than imported products and production capacity was underutilized. Majority of manufacturers adhered to current good manufacturing practice standards but were inadequate in research. This study recommends augmentation of research and development by the local pharmaceutical industry to generate new products. In addition, substantial government support is required to propel the industry to improve product range, product competitiveness and production capacity utilization.
ASSESSMENT OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN KENYA TO FORECAST LOCAL PRODUCTION SUFFICIENCY
(2017-10) SARAH KADESA VUGIGI
The World Health Organization’s global strategy on public health aims to support Member States to improve access to essential medicines. The desire of Kenya Government to implement this is expressed by formulation of Kenya National Pharmaceutical Policy (2010) which encourages local production of essential medicines for self-sufficiency. The pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya is engaged in production of various types of dosage forms but its capacity and capability to produce essential medicines for Kenyans have not been determined. The aim of this study was to assess the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry in Kenya to forecast local production sufficiency. This was attained by evaluating the manufacturing capability, production capacities and compliance with international marketing authorization standard of the Kenyan pharmaceutical industry. The 24 licensed manufacturers of medicines for human use were assessed. Data was collected on the current drug situation in Kenya by scanning Pharmacy and Poisons Board database to determine range of products that are registered in Kenya. Local pharmaceutical manufacturer’s product lists, Kenya Essential Medicines list and pharmaceutical tender lists of three major procurers in Kenya (Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies) were examined to establish the proportion of products which was manufactured locally. Prices competitiveness and market share of local products were evaluated and subsequently, pharmaceutical equivalents of 150 locally manufactured essential medicines were determined. Data on production capacity for 5 years (2010-2014) and compliance of facilities with good manufacturing practices standard and other prerequisites of marketing authorization was obtained using a structured questionnaire. Results showed that solid dosage forms were majority (54.9 %) of local products and sterile preparations were minority (2.7 %). Locally manufactured products accounted for 14.5 % of registered and 21.5 % of retained products. Local firms manufactured 38.4 % of products listed as essential medicines and 55.6 %, 24.5 % and 21.8 %, respectively, of pharmaceutical products procured by Kenya Medical Supplies Authority, Kenyatta National Hospital and Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies. The overall percentage of local pharmaceutical equivalents was 32.5 % for registered products. There was no variation between mean prices of local and imported pharmaceutical equivalents. Scatter diagrams demonstrated that imported pharmaceutical products comprised both low and highly priced brands. The overall utilized production capacity (two shifts) was 21.5 %; tablets (24.1 %), capsules (12.8 %), liquids (25.3 %), dry syrups (21.8 %), external preparations (21.3 %) and oral rehydration salts (23.6 %). This study projected the year for self-sufficiency in non-sterile medicines produced in the local industry as 2043. Good manufacturing practices standard was satisfactory at 11 facilities while the rest were striving to achieve compliance. Research and development of new products was limited in most facilities with 1 % of the workforce deployed in this department. It is concluded from this study that Kenya depends heavily on imported drugs for her essential medicines needs. Majority of local products were less competitive than imported products and production capacity was underutilized. Majority of manufacturers adhered to current good manufacturing practice standards but were inadequate in research. This study recommends augmentation of research and development by the local pharmaceutical industry to generate new products. In addition, substantial government support is required to propel the industry to improve product range, product competitiveness and production capacity utilization.
Effects of Computer Interactive Multiple Mice Technique On Learners’ Performance in Fractions In Primary Schools In Kenya
(2017-11) Metrine Wambani Sulungai
Studies attribute poor performance in mathematics especially in fractions in public primary schools to teacher centred teaching methods. However, few researchers have tried out interventions based on computer interactive multiple mice technique that promises to offer interactive and collaborative learning benefits enabling learners in resource-constrained schools to share one computer each with their own mouse. The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of computer interactive multiple mice technique on learners’ achievement, motivation and classroom interaction in learning fractions in public primary schools. The study was guided by the following objectives: to determine any difference in achievement between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice technique and those taught using conventional instructional methods, to find out any difference in motivation between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice technique and those taught using conventional instructional methods and to establish any difference in classroom interaction between learners’ taught using computer interactive multiple mice and those taught using conventional instructional methods. Computer Support for Collaborative Learning theory was used to depict the relationship between computer interactive multiple mice technique and conventional instructional methods as the independent variables and learners’ performance as the dependent variable. The study adopted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test, non equivalent groups design. The target population was 5,487 Standard 6 learners in public primary co-educational schools in Kenya. A sample of 518 learners from 12 schools were selected. Sampling techniques used involved stratification, purposive and simple randomized sampling. Computer interactive multiple mice technique was used in the experimental group while conventional instructional method was used in the control groups. Two Mathematics Achievement Tests (Mathematics Achievement Test 1 and Mathematics Achievement Test 2) gauged learners’ achievement in fractions. Mathematics Achievement Test 1 was used as a pretest for the two groups. Mathematics Achievement Test 2 was used to determine learner achievement after instruction. Mathematics Lesson Observation Checklist (MLOC) was used to gauge learners’ classroom interactions. Learner Motivation Questionnaire (LMQ) was used to determine learners’ motivation towards learning fractions. The instruments were piloted in two public primary co-educational schools of Hamisi Sub County. Face and content validity were determined by experts in mathematics subject. Test retest reliability method was deployed. Reliability was established using Pearson’s Product Moment of Correlation Coefficient to determine if the instruments were reliable. Class observations was employed to provide comparative findings to supplement the quantitative data. To test the hypotheses, inferential statistics (t-test) were used at significance level of .05. Qualitative data was summarized using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation) and presented using tables and figures. A response rate of 89.1% (476) was realized. The findings revealed that on the pretest, the two groups were comparable. The posttest revealed significant difference with mean performance of the experimental group higher than the control group. The findings revealed significant difference in achievement between the groups (t474 = 21.925, p = .000.), improved mean scores in motivation and enhanced classroom interactions. Therefore, computer interactive multiple mice technique enhanced learners achievement in fractions, improved learner motivation and enhanced classroom interaction as compared to conventional instructional methods in public primary schools of Hamisi Sub County.
PREVALENCE OF ECHINOCOCCOSIS IN DOGS, CATTLE, SHEEP AND GOATS, LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE AND ASSOCIATED ECONOMIC LOSSES
(2018) MABEL INYANGALA GACHENGO
Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) is an emerging and re-emerging zoonotic infection caused by the larval stage of the dog tapeworm of the genus Echinococcus. It causes great public health and economic problems and remains neglected in Sub-Saharan Africa. The level of knowledge is poor in most developing countries. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of echinococcosis and its trend, level of knowledge and associated economic losses in Laikipia West Sub-County. A total of 4969 animals (522 cattle, 3428 sheep and 1019 goats) slaughtered in abattoirs were inspected for hydatid cysts; a questionnaire was administered to one adult member from each of the 300 household using mobile data collection Kit. Faecal samples from 401dogs were used to determine prevalence of echinococcosis in dogs. Data from Veterinary office meat inspection reports 2010-2014 were used to determine trends and associated economic losses due to CE. The prevalence of CE in slaughtered animals was 8.8% in cattle, 1.7% in sheep and 1.7% in goats. Prevalence of echinococcosis in dogs was 0.5% (2/401). The level of knowledge of echinococcosis was 25% (n=300). A total of 98,495 animals were inspected during the period 2010-2014 and results showed an increasing trend with time for both prevalence and economic loss. There was evidence of CE transmission and the level of knowledge of Echinococcosis was low. The public health implications and economic losses call for concerted control efforts. More elaborate studies on echinococcosis are recommended in dogs and man.
Potential use of Kenyan Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Neem (Azadirachta indica) for the Sustainable Management of Tomato Leaf Miner (Tuta absoluta)
(2018-06) DAVID MUNYUA MUTEGI
The tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) was reported in Kenya in 2014 and has become a devastating pest of tomato crop in both the field and in the greenhouse. The objectives of this study were; to determine the pathogenicity of Heterorhabdities species and Steinernema karii nematodes against tomato leaf miner in laboratory conditions; to evaluate the insecticidal effects of neem biopesticide against tomato leaf miner in the greenhouse and to evaluate the effectiveness of entomopathogenic nematodes and neem combined with entomopathogenic nematodes as management options for tomato leaf miner in the greenhouse conditions. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) used in the study were obtained from Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) entomopathogenic nematodes laboratories and Tuta absoluta larvae were obtained from a colony reared and maintained in a greenhouse at Kabete Campus Field Station, Nairobi. Multiplication of the EPNs was done by invivo method or the insect-bait technique with the third instar of greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella). Bioassays were conducted in petri dishes where the effects of EPNs concentrations; at 100, 300and 500Ijs/ml on Tuta absoluta larvae exposed for 24-72 hours were evaluated. Secondly, three different concentrations namely; 20ml/20L, 40ml/20L and 60ml/20L of Nimbecidine® (Azadirachtin) were evaluated against Tuta absoluta populations in the greenhouse. Thirdly, the following management options; Steinernema karii nematodes alone applied at a rate of 1000 Ijs/ml with oil adjuvant Addit® as a wetting agent in water, Steinernema karii nematodes and neem (Azadirachtin 0.03%) applied sequentially after one hour at a rate of 40ml/20L were evaluated against Tuta absoluta populations. These were compared with Coragen® SC (20% Chlorantraniliprole) synthetic pesticide applied at the rate of 3ml/20L and control where only water was applied. A delta sticky trap supplied with Tuta absoluta pheromone was hanged at the centre xiii of the greenhouse at a height of one metre for monitoring Tuta absoluta numbers to enable the initiation of treatments. The results obtained showed that, the evaluated concentration rates of Heterorhabditis species and Steinernema karii at 100Ijs/ml, 300 Ijs/ml and 500 Ijs/ml significantly caused (p < 0.05) mortality to the Tuta absoluta larvae and the highest mortality was recorded at 500 Ijs/ml concentrations with an exposure period of 72 hours. Steinernema karii was more pathogenic compared to Heterorhabditis species with respect to exposure time, having shown 100% and 91.5% larval mortality, respectively. Secondly, the evaluated neem concentrations 20ml/20L, 40ml/20L and 60ml/20L significantly (p < 0.05) reduced Tuta absoluta population in the greenhouse tomato. The high concentration (60ml/20L) was more effective in reducing Tuta absoluta population and fruit damage compared to the lower concentrations and control. High fruit damage of 96.2% was recorded in the control compared to 30.0%, 23.4% and 20.0% for 20ml/20L, 40ml/20L and 60ml/20L dose rates, respectively. Lastly, EPNs alone and EPNs combined with neem significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the population of Tuta absoluta. The number reduction of Tuta absolutaby EPNs combined with neem did not differ with that which was achieved in Coragen®. Tomato fruit damage was highest in the control with 91.5% compared to 10.8%, 7.9% and 3.0% for EPNs alone, EPNs combined with neem and Coragen®, respectively. This study demonstrates the potential of EPNs alone or in combination with neem applied successively at a one hour interval, as an alternative strategy for the sustainable management of Tuta absoluta in the greenhouse conditions.
EFFECTS OF FARM SIZE AND GREENLEAF MARKETING ARRANGEMENTS ON SMALLHOLDER TEA PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY IN SELECTED COUNTIES IN KENYA
(2018-06) JOSIAH MWANGI ATEKA
The smallholder tea sub-sector makes an important contribution in the Kenyan economy. Although the subsector has enjoyed relative growth in terms of acreage, output and number of growers, productivity has remained low. The subsector is characterized by huge differentials between actual and potential yields, which imply existence of production inefficiencies. Studies on efficiency in the sector have focused on the regional differences in efficiency, but have not explicitly considered the effects of farm size on efficiency; despite rising concerns from stakeholders about subdivision of tea farms. Moreover, the influences of the alternative tea market channels (ATMCs) which are outcome of the tea market reforms have also not been accounted for in previous studies. This study estimated the level of technical efficiency (TE) and analysed the effects of farm size and marketing arrangements on efficiency in the smallholder tea subsector in Kenya. Using the multistage random sampling approach, data for the study was collected from a cross sectional survey of 525 tea farming households. The level of TE was estimated using the variable returns to scale DEA model, while the analysis of farm size effects was explored using the Fractional Regression (FR) model which accounts for the fractional nature of efficiency scores. The study further applied the Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) model to investigate the effect of marketing arrangements on TE. The study found that smallholder tea farms were technically inefficient and were operating below their optimal scale. The estimated mean of TE was 0.46 which implies that tea farmers can achieve their current tea output using only 46 percent of their inputs. The study further found that tea farmers in Nyamira County were technically less efficient than their counterparts in Bomet County. The effect of farm size on TE was found to be nonlinear with TE first falling and then rising with increase in farm size. Apart from contributing to literature on the relationship between farm size and efficiency, the study demonstrates that there exists a threshold of farm size (3.93 acres) beyond which increase in farm size leads to an increase TE. The other factors that were found to influence TE were participation in the Farmer Field School (FFS) extension program, the share of family labour applied in tea farming, the age of the farm and the education level of the household head. With regard to tea marketing, it was found that the ATMCs were used by 36.4 percent of the smallholders in the study area. From the ESR and PSM models the study found a consistent result that ATMC participation increases TE in tea production. The study recommends that Agriculture and Food Authority (AFA) and the respective county governments enact regulations that restrict farm subdivisions and implement policies that encourage consolidation of tea farms, support tea replanting to replace aging tea gardens and deepen market reforms in order to increase the farmers‟ access to ATMC. In addition, efforts should be directed towards promotion of the FFS extension, addressing labour market imperfections and ensuring that the policy formulation process in the tea sector accounts for regional specific heterogeneities that may impact on efficiency.

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